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Personality Theories & Measurement 7 March 2024 Objectives Define the term objective tests and projective measurement Identify and describe selected objective personality measures used by Psychologists Analyze the theory, and criticisms, of projective tests Psychologists seek to Measure Personal...

Personality Theories & Measurement 7 March 2024 Objectives Define the term objective tests and projective measurement Identify and describe selected objective personality measures used by Psychologists Analyze the theory, and criticisms, of projective tests Psychologists seek to Measure Personality through a number of methods, the most common of which are objective tests and projective measures. Objective tests , such as self-report measures, rely on an individual's personal responses and are relatively free of rater bias. An objective test is a psychological test that measures an individual's characteristics in a way that isn't influenced by the examiner's own beliefs; in this way, they are said to be independent of rater bias. They usually involve the administration of a bank of questions that are marked and compared against standardized scoring mechanisms, in much the same way that school exams are administered. Objective tests tend to have more validity than projective tests; however, they are still subject to the willingness and ability of the examinee to be open, honest, and self- reflective enough to accurately represent and report their true personality. The most common form of objective test in personality psychology is the Self-Report Measure. Self-report measures rely on information provided directly by participants about themselves or their beliefs through a question-and-answer format. There are a number of test formats, but each one requires respondents to provide information about their own personality. They typically use multiple-choice items or numbered scales, which represent a range from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Self-report measures are used with both clinical and nonclinical populations and for a variety of reasons, from diagnostic purposes to helping with career guidance. Some of the more widely used personality self-report measures are the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, Neo Pi-R, MMPI/MMPI-2, 16 PF, and Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. For example, I work well with others. Strongly Disagree, Somewhat disagree, No Opinion, Somewhat Agree Strongly Agree Myers-Briggs Type Indicator The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is based on Carl Jung's theory of personality. The MBTI is one of the most popular personality inventories used with nonclinical populations; it has been criticized, however, for its lack of statistical validity and low reliability. The MBTI measures individuals across four bi-polar dimensions: Attitudes: Extraversion-Introversion This measures whether someone is "outward-turning" and action-oriented or "inward turning" and thought-oriented. The perceiving function: Sensing-Intuition This measures whether someone understands and interprets new information using their five senses (sensing) or intuition. The judging function: Thinking-Feeling This measures whether one tends to make decisions based on rational thought or empathic feeling. Lifestyle preferences: Judging-Perceiving This measures whether a person relates to the outside world primarily using their judging function (which is either thinking or feeling) or their perceiving function (which is either sensing or intuition). Neo Pi-R The Revised Neo Pi (personality inventory) is designed to measure personality traits using the Five-Factor Model According to the five-factor model, the five dimensions of personality lies along a continuum of opposing poles and include: Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory MMPI-1 The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is the most widely used personality inventory for both clinical and nonclinical populations, and is commonly used to help with the diagnosis of personality disorders. It was first published in 1943, with 504 true or false questions; an updated version including 567 questions was released in 1989, and is known as the MMPI-2. The original MMPI was based on a small, limited sample composed mostly of Minnesota farmers and psychiatric patients; the revised inventory was based on a more representative, national sample to allow for better standardization. MMPI-2 takes 1-2 hours to complete. Responses are scored to produce a clinical profile composed of 10 scales: hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, psychopathic deviance (social deviance), masculinity versus femininity, paranoia, psychasthenia (obsessive/compulsive qualities), schizophrenia, hypomania, and social introversion. There is also a scale for ascertaining risk factors for alcohol abuse. In 2008, the test was revised once more using more advanced methods; this is the MMPI-2-RF. This version takes about one-half the time to complete and has only 338 questions. Despite the new test's advantages, the MMPI-2 is more established and is still more widely used. Although the MMPI was originally developed to assist in the clinical diagnosis of psychological disorders, it is now also used for occupational screening for careers like law enforcement, and in college, career, and marital counselling. 16 Personality Factor The 16 PF (personality factor) inventory measures personality according Cattell's 16 factor theory of personality. The 16PF can also be used by psychologists and other mental health professionals as a clinical instrument to help diagnose psychiatric disorders and help with prognosis and therapy planning. It provides clinicians with a normal-range measurement of anxiety, adjustment, emotional stability, and behavioral problems. It can also be used within other areas of psychology, such as career and occupational selection. Eysenck Personality Questionnaire The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire is based on Eysenck's model of personality, and was developed from a large body of research and laboratory experiments. Eysenck's inventory focuses on three dimensions: psychoticism, extraversion, and neuroticism. Projective measures or tests Projective measures or tests are founded in psychoanalytic theories of personality and involve using ambiguous stimuli to reveal inner aspects of an individual's personality. Projective measures, unlike objective tests, are sensitive to the rater's or examiner's beliefs. Projective tests are based on Freudian psychology (psychoanalysis) and seek to expose people's unconscious perceptions by using ambiguous stimuli to reveal the inner aspects of an individual's personality. Two of the most popular projective measures are the Thematic Apperception Measure and the Rorschach test. The advantage of projective measures is that they purportedly expose certain aspects of personality that are impossible to measure by means of an objective test; for instance, they are more reliable at uncovering unconscious personality traits or features. However, they are criticized for having poor reliability and validity, lacking scientific evidence, and relying too much on the subjective judgment of a clinician. Rorschach Test The Rorschach test consists of ten inkblots, which were created by Herman Rorschach dribbling ink on paper and then folding over the paper to create a symmetrical design. During the test, participants are shown the inkblots and asked what each one looks like. The test administrator then asks questions about the responses, such as which part of the inkblot was linked to each response. This test can be used to examine a person's personality characteristics and emotional functioning, and is thought to measure unconscious attitudes and motivations. Simulated inkblot The above simulated inkblot is similar to those that make up the Rorschach test; a Rorschach inkblot would be filled in rather than a dotted pattern. Thematic Apperception Test The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) consists of 30 cards (including one blank card) depicting ambiguous drawings. Test-takers are asked to tell a story about each picture, including the background that led up to the story and the thoughts and feelings of the characters. Like the Rorschach test, the results are thought to indicate a person's personality characteristics and emotional functioning. General Strengths and Limitations of Trait Perspectives While trait theories are useful in categorizing behavior, they have been criticized by a number of psychologists. Strengths of the Trait Perspectives One strength of the trait perspectives is their ability to Categorize Observable Behaviors. Researchers have found that examining the aggregate behaviors of individuals provides a strong correlation with traits; in other words, observing the behaviors of an individual over time and in varying circumstances provides evidence for the personality traits categorized in trait theories. Another strength is that trait theories use Objective Criteria for categorizing and measuring behavior. One possible proof of this is that several trait theories were developed independently of each other when factor analysis was used to conclude a specific set of traits. While developing their theories independently of each other, trait theorists often arrived at a similar set of traits. Limitations of the Trait Perspectives Trait perspectives are often criticized for their: Predictive Value: critics argue that traits do a poor job of predicting behavior in every situation. Some psychologists argue that the situational variables (that is, environmental factors) are more influential in determining behavior than traits are; other psychologists argue that a combination of traits and situational variables influences behavior. Such critics argue that the patterns of variability over different situations are crucial to determining personality, and that averaging over such situations to find an overarching "trait" in fact masks critical differences among individuals. For example, Brian is teased a lot but he rarely responds aggressively, while Josie is teased very rarely but responds aggressively every time. These two children might be acting aggressively the same number of times, so trait theorists would suggest that their behavior patterns-or even their personalities-are equivalent. However, psychologists who criticize the trait approach would argue that Brian and Josie are very different children. Another limitation of trait theories is that they Require personal observations or subjective self- reports to measure. Self-report measures require that an individual be introspective enough to understand their own behavior. Personal observation measures require that an individual spend enough time observing someone else in a number of situations to be able to provide an accurate assessment of their behaviors. Both of these measures are subjective and can fall prey to observer bias and other forms of inaccuracy. Another criticism is that trait theories Do not explain why an individual behaves in a certain way. Trait theories provide information about people and about which traits cause which behaviors; however, there is no indication as to why these traits interact in the way that they do. For example, an extroverted individual is energized by social interactions and seeks out social situations, but trait theory does not offer any explanation for why this might occur or why an introvert would avoid such situations.