Translation English 2 PDF

TRANSLATION ENGLISH 2 01/10/24 What is Translation Studies? (TS) Translation Studies: a wide and varied area of enquiry having the study of translating and translation as its core. (quote by Palumbo) - translating: process - translation (s): product What is translation Com...

TRANSLATION ENGLISH 2 01/10/24 What is Translation Studies? (TS) Translation Studies: a wide and varied area of enquiry having the study of translating and translation as its core. (quote by Palumbo) - translating: process - translation (s): product What is translation Competence? A combination of 2 skills 1. the ability to generate a series of target texts from a source text 2. the ability to select only one from this array of texts and to propose it as a target text for a specified purpose and reader. Source text: text to be translated. Target text: translated text (product of translation) Translating tourist texts Umbrella term to refer to a variety of texts such as: guide books, travel magazines, websites, brochures, leaflets on site… etc. Tourist texts are produced by: - Tourist Boards - City councils - Private enterprises to promote a given locality, its tourist attractions, services and facilities. and consist of a VARIETY of publications: Multilingual/monolingual magazines/ periodicals/ leaflets – giving info about cultural events, describing places of historical/ artistic/ geographical interest Visitor guides – booklet / brochure format Posters – advertising artistic performances Descriptive panels (near monuments/ areas of geological interest/ places of worship) Holiday brochures (usually publ. by travel agencies) – info about holiday packages Books (illustrated with pictures and photographs) on historical towns/cities… And also: Travel magazines Websites Blogs Social Media Language DOMAINS: (that can be involved in tourist texts) Architecture/history of art/ history/geography/ gastronomy/ economy/ sports/customs and traditions/music and dance. Socio-cultural entities: Groups or communities formed based on shared cultural practices, like nations or subcultures. Textual practices: Common ways language is used within a culture, including norms for communication, writing, and interpretation. Stylistic conventions: When translating tourist texts from English to Italian, the convention is to ADHERE to the target language style, i.e. to the stylistic conventions of a typical TL text with the same communicative functions. lexis is NOT the whole story : lexico-grammar exists - This refers to the idea that vocabulary (lexis) and grammar (how words are structured in sentences) are closely related. In a good translation, both vocabulary and grammar need to be considered together to create a fluent and accurate text. English tourist texts Italian tourist texts tend to be more personal and usually impersonal and formal; informal; tend to be translated (appellative) they use imperative mode with impersonal expressions; italian readers may perceive imperative as “rude” - if the text is more appellative (provocative rather than informing) even italian texts tend to be more colloquial. COMMUNICATIVE FUNCTION: (Reiss) Tourist texts mostly fulfill two communicative functions: 1. Informative: Communication that provides facts or knowledge. Informative text: the aim is to convey information 2. Appellative Communication that aims to persuade or prompt action. Operative text: the aim is persuading, therefore adhering to the appellative function Aspects to be considered when making a commentary: - WHY is the ST being translated - WHO are the ADDRESSERS and ADDRESSEES - TIME and PLACE of text reception Variables to consider: when we translate, we should take into account: - audience - medium of transmission - text type - translation purpose - the general translation strategy of the translator and/or the commissioner of the translation 02/10 What is translation? Roman Jakobson, “On linguistic aspects of translation”. Concerned about the linguistic aspects of translation. He identified 3 main types of translation: 1. intralingual, rewording 2. interlingual, translation proper (2 different languages: from a linguistic system to another) 3. intersemiotic, transmutation (between 2 differen sign systems) Examples of intralingual translation Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s stone, uk 1997 ➡️ HP and the Sorcerer’s stone, Scholastic 1999 usa Different vocabulary or verb flexions such as: biscuits vs cookies, got-gotten, football- soccer Examples of interlingual translation italian translation: Harry Potter e la pietra filosofale Semiotic translation: translating a visual and behavioral meaning that fits the driving customs of each culture. Intrasemiotic translation: book ➡️movie in the same language Translation According to Jakobson: interlingual translation can be considered ‘translation proper’ Main focus during Jakobson’s time : translation between written languages Translating vs interpreting Nowadays, we have multi channel texts or polysemiotic texts e.g. Audiovisual translation such as SUBTITLING Interlingual subtitling consists of snippets of written text superimposed on visual footage that convey a target language version of the source speech (Gonzales). It is also defined as “diamesic” or “intermodal”. (Gottlieb) The practice existed for about 1 century, the academic discipline has existed for 25 years. Intermiotic shift from speech to writing (and from one lingua-culture to another) The process of converting spoken language (audio) into written subtitles (text) across different languages and cultures. Multimodality: Combining various modes of communication (e.g., audio, visual, and written) in media, where subtitles are part of the interaction between sound, images, and text. Media Accessibility: through 1. SDH: subtitling for deaf and hard of hear (in UK English) - also named Closed captioning - CC - (in Usa English) which are ➡️ “written renders of the screen dialogues and accounts of other aural components (sound effects and music) in audiovisual materials”. 2. AD (Audio Description): verbal commentary providing visual information for those unable to perceive it themselves - intersemiotic, intermodal or cross-modal translation (which refer to the process of translating meaning from one form of communication or sign system, like language, images, sounds, to another). - The visual is made verbal (Snyder)  (movies, series, theater, sports are accessible thanks to a verbal commentary) EX: museums descriptions EX: movie Inside Out ➡️ The Japanese version of the movie doesn’t show broccoli because they are usually appreciated by kids, and replaced with green peppers. This “adaptation” (“translation”) is defined as intrasemiotic. Is it translation? Examples ST: When Swiffer’s the one, consider it done ➡️TT: La polvere non dura, perché Swiffer la cattura. This is a form of TRANSCREATION, which can be defined as - a translation-related activity that combines processes of linguistic translation, cultural adaptation and (re-)creation or creative re-interpretation of certain parts of a text. (Millon & Lobo) - fields: literature, marketing, advertising, video games, websites, information materials, mobile applications etc. ST: BEST BETS FOR KIDS - When it’s bedtime ➡️Per quanto riguarda gli alloggi Difference in: usa tourists in the area may not book a stay, while italian tourists would. That is why “bedtime” is translated into “alloggi”. WHAT IS TRANSLATION? 1. The process of transferring a written text from SL to TL, conducted by a translator, or translators, in a specific socio-cultural context. 2. the written product, or TT, which results from that process and which functions in the socio-cultural context of the TL 3. The cognitive, linguistic, visual cultural and ideological phenomenon which are an integral part of the process and the product Translation studies - is a wide and varied area of enquiry having the study of translation and translations as its core - distinctive field of academic research: over the last 60 years - Current denomination: Dutch based American scholar James S. Holmes ➡️ “(Translation studies is to be understood as a collective and inclusive designation for all research activities taking the phenomena of translating and translation as their basis or focus) - (1972) The name and nature of translation studies (essay) - 1980’s start of the real discipline, through a wider circulation thanks to Holmes HOLMES: proposed a new distinction Pure TS: two branches that focus on the same objectives (below) - theoretical: aims at the evolution of principles, theories, and models which will serve to explain and predict what translating and translations are and will be.  - descriptive: can be product oriented, function oriented and process oriented. Product oriented: Function oriented: Process oriented: Analyzes existing translations Studies the socio-cultural Investigates the cognitive individually or comparatively impact of translations, processes involved in to build broader corpora examining which texts were translation, with a future studies, potentially aiming for translated and their focus on psychological a comprehensive history of influences, potentially methods to understand the translations. developing into translator’s mental actions, "socio-translation studies." possibly leading to (context over content) "translation psychology." Applied TS: Refer to the practical aspects - translator training - translator aids - translator criticism TS: a distinctive field of academic research over the last 60 years PURE TRANSLATION STUDIES: have two main aims 1. to describe the phenomena of translating and translation(s) as they manifest themselves in the world of our experience 2. to establish general principles by means of which these phenomena can be explained and predicted G. Toury (1995): elaborated 2 “laws” of translation behavior 1. Law of growing standardization: TT’s generally display less linguistic variation than ST (translations tend to conform to the linguistic and cultural norms of the TL: TT’s are more standardized) - Source text textemes (signs which assume specific functions deriving from the special relationships they create within the text) tend to be converted into target-language repertoremes (signs which belong to an institutionalized repertoire, that is, a group of items which are codifications of phenomena that have semiotic value for a given community)» - usually, in order to conform to TL’s norms Easier: textemes ➡️unique and specific features of SL tend to be converted into repertoremes ➡️conventionalised elements in TL’s repertoire (codifications of phenomena that have a specifi value for a given community) 2. Law of ‘interference’ - Phenomena pertaining to the make-up of the source text tend to be transferred to the target text. Ex: among them ➡️ fra le altre typical expression of the english language that has an interference in italian. In both instances, the argument is that translated language typically exhibits certain distinctive features, referred to as universals of translation. UNIVERSALS OF TRANSLATION: linguistic features which typically occur in translated rather than original texts and are thought to be independent of the influence of specific language pairs. Pre computational past: - Vinay and Darblenet make many generalizations about the translation process, e.g. TT normally longer than ST. - Levy: translations often characterized by grammatically correct but artistically chlichéd terms - Blum-Kulka & Levemston: lexical simplification typical of translations With the advent of large computerized databases and tools, these hypotheses can be tested on large amount of texts - 1993 Baker: identifies 3 typicalities of the language from a corpus of translated texts compared to non-translated texts e.g. 1. Explicitation ➡️the technique of making explicit in the TT information that is implicit in the source text. - strategy used in the process of translation  - a feature of the product of translation (in a higher degree in translated rather than in non-translated texts) 2. Grammatical Standardization 3. Frequency of common words Another concept linked to TU’s is TRANSLATIONESE: this term is used, most of the time pejoratively, to refer to the unnatural or awkward stype of translated texts, esp. as produced by the influence of SL structural features. see: DUBBESE 08/10/2024 The Practice of translator training aimed at the acquisition of Translation Competence can be fruitfully guided by: 1. a translation BRIEF 2. a ST analysis 3. a systematic approach to translation problems ST & TT ADDRESSER: the magazine ST ADDRESSEE’s: english speaking readers/tourists TT ADDRESSEE’s: italian readers A FUNCTIONALIST APPROACH TO TRANSLATION “The communicative situation (including the communicators and their communicative aims) determines the verbal and non-verbal features”. Beware: different communication functions ➡️different translation strategies functionalist approach: apply Nord’s model of TRANSLATION-ORIENTED ANALYSIS 09/10/2024 Review: the discipline of translation studies was named as such by Toury Jakobson Holmes Toury proposed the of law of growing standardization TRANSLATION “STRATEGIES” Considered under the dichotomy literal vs free Common view: - literal rendering of meaning - adherence to form  - general accuracy - Jakobson argues that while the meaning of any idea can be translated into any language ( ➡️yes, to a certain extent), the form, especially in poetry, is often untranslatable. This is because in poetry and similar contexts, the form (like rhyme and rhythm) directly influences meaning, creating challenges in fully capturing both sense and style in another language Translatability: refers to how well meaning can be conveyed across languages despite structural differences. Effective translation requires not only conveying the source text’s meaning but also considering communicative purpose, audience, and translation goals. While some unique elements of the ST may resist translation, bridging cultural gaps is always possible. Ensuring TT comprehensibility is essential to achieve this. Perspective view: - from the Roman times: orator Cicero describes is own translation (of Attic of orators) as not adherent to the word-for-word approach, but as preserving the style and force of the language Literal vs free Split between form and content is linked to the ➡️ Major polar split in the history of translation theory for 2000 years, between two ways of translating: literal and free. “LITERAL” - emphasizes accuracy and adherence to the ST (usually word-for-word translation) - might be common between closed related language - We tend to define it as : too close to SL or influenced by the SL, however Free translation is also often considered as “too far” from the SL. Between these two concepts, there are other strategies. (the result is what is sometimes known as translationese) FREE: - prioritizes conveying the overall meaning/essence of a text, adapting the TT to its socio-cultural context Example: Advertising 1. Chicken slices Machine Translation: in this case (“chicken slices”) does not convey an effective meaning, because translation is too literal 2. Ikea “Once Upon A Table” ➡️ ex “una tavola da fiaba/favola” PT ➡️ C’era una tavola TRANSLATION “SHIFTS” Coined by J. Catford (1965) - changes which occur or may occur in the process of translating : - A shift is said to occur if a source text element is rendered by a tl element that is different from the expected tl correspondent. Shifts can occur at all levels, including text, genre and discourse. Catford: Shifts are ‘departures from formal correspondence from SL to TL’: distinction between formal correspondence and textual equivalence 1. Formal correspondence refers to a general comparison between language systems, where a target language (TL) element functions similarly to a source language (SL) 2. Textual equivalence, on the other hand, deals with how a specific TL text matches the meaning of a SL text in context EX: Advertising 1. Fika: Enjoy your coffee time as the Swedish do; ex Fika: pausa caffè in stile svedese ➡️Pausa caffè in stile svedese (fika is censored) The shift in the translation is due to cultural reason (censorship in italian) Un-Translatability - Linguistic untranslatability occurs typically in cases where an ambiguity peculiar to the SL text is a functionally relevant feature - e.g. in SL puns - easier: occurs when certain language specific features carry meanings or ambiguities that can’t be easily replicated in another language - The pun reigns over poetic art and whether its rule is absolute or limited, poetry by definition is untranslatable. Puns ➡️rely on wordplay/double entendres; poetry ➡️ hard to maintain its nuances; Example: Videogames - Fledgling Heroes Translation “strategies” and “procedures” strategies: approach vs procedures: specific techniques (Vinay & Darbelnet) Shifts are related to - Procedures - Methods - Techniques - (local) strategies They deal with problem solving. The most comprehensive taxonomy of translation shifts was set out by Vinay & Darbelnet, within their translation procedures. Model of Vinay and Darbelnet : distinguishes between DIRECT translation, which covers: - Borrowing (loan word: transferring a word or a group of words from a SL without changing its form in the TL)  - Calque (A calque in translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by directly translating its components, rather than adopting the foreign term as is. For example, the English phrase "skyscraper" was calqued into French as gratte-ciel. - Calque can be lexical or structural - Literal Translation: or word for word, translation is the direct transfer of a SL text into a grammatically and idiomatically appropriate TL text OBLIQUE translation, which is: - Transposition: (gramm); translation of an item pertaining to a language class to another pertaining to a different language class - Modulation: can be optional (change in the pov) or obligatory (ex. the time when : le moment où) - Equivalence: same situation rendered with different stylistic and structural methods - Adaptation: creation of a new situation that can be considered as equivalent according to the specific cultural context They can be applied on 3 levels of language: 1. lexicon 2. grammatical structures 3. message ➡️ these strategies are at this level discussed as “compensation” (notion of loss and gain) Transposition: translation of an item pertaining to a language class into another term pertaining to a different language class. ex “An economic transformation is accelerating” ➡️ “L’economia si trasforma velocemente” Modulation Change in the P.o.v. EX: Not long after ➡️ A poche settimane da EX: ST: the mission of Linkedin is simple: connect the world’s professionals to make them more productive and successful TT: La missione di Linkedin è semplice: collegare i professionisti di tutto il mondo per aumentarne la produttività e il successo from adJ to noun: nominalization ➡️ transposition Equivalence The same situation rendered with different stylistic and structural methods Adaptation translators create a new ‘situation’ that can be considered as equivalent TEXT TYPOLOGY Reiss proposed a text typology, with three main text types 1. INFORMATIVE - plain communication of facts (news/knowledge/information/arguments/opinions/feelings/judgments/intentions) 2. EXPRESSIVE: artistic shaping of content 3. OPERATIVE: inducing behavioral responses Text types are related to functions: Informative texts: semantic Expressive texts: aesthetic effect/ connotative meanings Operative texts: extra linguistic effects ‘TEXT TYPE AS THE TRANSLATOR’S FOCUS (1990-: 153-158) In the mid-1980s,Edinburgh-based translation theorists Basil Hatim and Ian Mason proposed a comprehensive model of translation grounded in the notion of text type and critical discourse analysis. Hatim and Mason taxonomy of text type can be visualized as follows: 1. Exposition/ Expository type: Focus on explaining concepts (e.g., lists of reasons or characteristics). : ○ Includes Narration and Description. ○ function is to MONITOR 2. Argumentation/ Argumentative type: Focus on persuading the reader, with subtypes like: ○ Through-argumentation: Defending a thesis. ○ Counter-argumentation: Refuting a thesis. ○ function is to MANAGE 3. Instruction/ Instructional type: Focus on directing future behavior. ○ With option (e.g., advertising). ○ Without option (e.g., contracts). Relevance for PRACTICE A (sub-) genre /register - A tourist guide is likely to be a heterogenous mixture of various text types Instruction: ‘without option’ or ‘with option’ ➡️Hatim & Mason Can be of: high value, median value, low value Instruction - without option: there is no other solution to solve an issue, orders, command - with option: recommendations, suggestions - tips?: can be with/without option depending on the variable (high, median, low value) - 22/10/2024 THE COMMENTARY- Based on Nord’s theory from chapter 4 3 steps: 1. analysis of the Translation BRIEF (commission) 2. source texts (ST) analysis 3. Functional hierarchy of translation problems: which is a systematic approach to translation problems Translation brief: specifications relating to the purpose for which translation is needed provided by those who commission translation. PHASE 1: Translation Brief Working from a top-down perspective (starting from the extra-textual factors and then the text): it has to be carried out before close text analysis There can be explicit or implicit information about Intended function(s) (primary and secondary), such as: ○ Why is ST being translated? ○ What purpose do the ST and TT serve? Addressers and addressee: they influence translation strategies time and place of text production and reception Medium/channel over which the text will be transmitted Motive (for the production or reception of the text: why is it being translated?) Intended functions: meaning North draws from Buhlers basic functions, which are: 1. representational ( =referential) 2. expressive 3. appellative adding a 4th one 4. Phatic FUNCTIONS: THE REFERENTIAL FUNCTION Involves reference to the objects and phenomena of a particular (external) world (real or fiction) SUB FUNCTIONS (of the referential function): - informative - metalinguistic - directive - didactic Denotative value of lexical items BUT also references presumed to be familiar THE EXPRESSIVE FUNCTION Reiss and Nord’s E.F is slightly different to Buhler’s: - REISS: it is restricted to the aesthetic aspects of literary or poetic texts - NORD: it refers to the sender’s ATTITUDE towards the objects and phenomena of the world The sub functions (of the expressive function) - EMOTIVE (feelings or emotions) - EVALUATIVE - (IRONY) It can be used with a combination of FUNCTIONS Nord: the expressive function is senders-oriented. THE APPELLATIVE FUNCTION Directed at the receiver's sensitivity or disposition to act (it’s receivers oriented) Designed to induce them to respond in a particular way (educate, convince, persuade…) It can be expressed directly or indirectly (ex. direct: imperative mood / rhetorical questions; ex indirect: nouns, adjectives, evaluations…) THE PHATIC FUNCTION Establishing or maintaining contact: main aim is small talk (usually in speech) Text are rarely monofunctional: there is a Hierarchy of functions EX. Bakewell Nord distinguishes between the sender and the ST producer (which is the author of the text) ST & TT ADDRESSER: the magazine ST ADDRESSEE’s: english speaking readers/tourists TT ADDRESSEE’s: italian readers PHASE 2: SOURCE TEXT ANALYSIS Needs to be translation oriented (Nord 2005) Based on INTRATEXTUAL FACTORS Identification of: SUBJECT MATTER (including culture-bound elements) (broader than the content) CONTENT (incl. CONNOTATION and COHESION) (more specific) PRESUPPOSITIONS (they refer to the relative background knowledge; culture- genre-specific conventions) (what can be taken for granted by the sender and their addressee’s) TEXT COMPOSITION (how the text is structured, composed. We have macro and micro structures (ex. chapters and sentences) LEXICAL CHOICES (terminology can signal the function) SENTENCE STRUCTURE (hypotactic, paratactic) (NON-VERBAL ELEMENTS) PICK WHAT IS RELEVANT! Not all these elements are essential. SUBJECT MATTER VS CONTENT SUBJECT MATTER concerns the message referring to an extra-linguistic reality (broader; topic of the text) guidelines: (topic or main idea that the text discusses) - Is the ST a coherent single text or a text combination? - What is the SM of the text or of each component? - Is the SM verbalized in the text (for ex. in a topic text, in the beginning) or in the text’s environment (ex. the title etc.)? - Is the SM bound to a particular cultural context? CONTENT: reference of the text to object and phenomena in an extralinguistic reality, real or fictitious. Encompasses all the elements that convey meaning in the ST. (more specific; it also includes connotation,quotations, presupposition: they refer to background knowledge) - How are the extratextual factors verbalized in the text? - Are there any gaps of cohesion and/or coherence in the text? PRESUPPOSITIONS: what not? (background knowledge + culture/genre specific conventions) Knowledge presuppositions: - Difference in cultural knowledge - Implicit information TEXT COMPOSITION: in which order the content is presented and how the various pieces of information are interconnected (organization of info within the text) - macro structure: chapters, paragraphs, etc. - micro structure: sentences, sentence parts… LEXIS; guiding questions: analysis of the vocabulary used - How are the extratextual factors reflected in the use of lexis? (regional and social dialects, historical language varieties, medium-specific lexis, etc) - Which features of the lexis indicate the attitude of the sender? (e.g., connotations, rhetorical figures) - Which fields of lexis (terminologies) are represented? (toponyms, drink & food, country places hills) SENTENCE STRUCTURE: length, structure, stylistic elements - Are the sentences long or short, coordinated or subordinated? How are they linked? - Are there any instances of parallelism, rhetorical questions, parenthesis, ellipsis, etc? What function do they perform? - Are there any syntactic features that are determined by audience orientation, text-type conventions, or by the medium? Does the translation ‘skopos’ require any adaptations? PHASE 3: TRANSLATION PROBLEMS Translation problems: objective Translation difficulties: subjective One of the advantages of this approach to tasks in translator training (and why not in professional situations?) is that problems can be identified in advance.» Note that translation problems are here considered to be objective or at least intersubjective; they are not to be equalled with translation difficulties, which are the subjective difficulties that a particular translator or trainee encounters in a translation process because of deficient linguistic, cultural or translational competence, or because they do not have appropriate documentation. Translation problems will always remain problems, even when a translator has learnt how to deal with them rapidly and effectively.» (Nord 2018: 59-60, emphasis added) Functional hierarchy of translation problems - Macro-function (documentary vs instrumental translation) - (explained further) - What elements need to be adapted based on commission (addressees and motive) - Translation STYLE (source-culture or target culture oriented?) - local problems, based on text analysis. 1. pragmatic: refer to the communicative situation (time, place, context) 2. cultural: references and conventions 3. linguistic: language structure 4. specific: unique to the text (wordplay, stylistic choices…) Local because: they are specific to elements of the text (and not affecting the entire translation process) 23/10/2024 Review Pure theory The scholar who coined the term translation “shift” was… Holmes Catford Reiss Toury Applied theory Analyze the ST-TT below, then answer the following question According to Vinay and Darbelnet’s model, the dominant translation procedure employed in the TT marked in bold is an example of calque THE NOTION OF EQUIVALENCE Theories within the “equivalence paradigm” assume that what we say in one language can have the same value (or function) when translated into another language. Concept of TERTIUM COMPARATIONIS (third point of comparison): what is assumed to remain invariant in the transition from one language into another, providing the basis for comparison It means similarity rather than equality EQUIVALENCE Catford “formal correspondence” vs Textual equivalence + Translation shift Vinay and Darbelnet: of the translation “procedures” Textual equivalence: any TL text or portion of text which is observed to be the equivalent of given SL text or portion of text Catford: Differentiates between: 1. formal correspondence (matching grammatical structures between languages) 2. textual equivalence (achieving similar meaning on a textual level) : TL text/portion that is observed to serve as an equivalent to a SL text/portion C. emphasizes that translation does not operate on isolated words but on whole TEXTS, which have many linguistic layers When a TL cannot exactly mirror SL structures, a departure from formal correspondence takes place: gives rise to TRANSLATION SHIFTS (to achieve textual equivalence) Vinay and Darbelnet: Equivalence : one of 7 procedure idioms, clcichés, proverbs (which are mostly fixed expressions + need to convey the same cultural and contextual impact in the TL) EQUIVALENCE THEORIES KOLLER (1979 - 1995) “Regardless of the approach one uses on the study of translation and translations, it remains necessary to delimit the legitimate field of concern, I.e. translation must be identified and described sui generis as the result of a text-processing activity. From the linguistic and text theoretical perspective, this objective is fulfilled by the concept of equivalence ; a translation is defined as a secondary text that stands in an equivalence relation to a primary text. “ A TT must maintain a comparable relationship to the ST in order to convey the same meaning 6 be aligned with it Koller defines translation as a process where the target language (TL) text and the source language (SL) text are linked by a translational or equivalence relationship. While the exact nature of "equivalence" isn't clarified, it’s clear that translation involves unique challenges, such as reconciling linguistic, cultural, and aesthetic differences, which do not typically arise in original writing. Koller distinguishes between two notions of equivalence in translation: langue-oriented and parole-oriented. The former focuses on formal similarities at the linguistic system level, while the latter deals with equivalence between actual texts in context. Koller argues that parole-oriented equivalence, based on real texts and their context, is the primary focus in Translation Studies. HIERARCHICAL Koller’s equivalence model defines equivalence as a process influenced by both linguistic factors (textual and extra-textual) and historical-cultural conditions. He describes equivalence as having a "double-linkage" to both the source text (ST) and the communicative context of the receiver. Koller: 5 types of equivalence 1. FORMAL 2. DENOTATIVE 3. CONNOTATIVE 4. TEXT-NORMATIVE 5. PRAGMATIC FUNCTIONALISM (rejection of the theory of equivalence) German, early 1980’s: TRANSLATION PURPOSE REISS & VERMEER SKOPOS THEORY: Skopos (greek, ‘purpose’, ‘goal’) is an appropriate name for a theory which focuses on such aspects of the translation process as interactional dynamic and pragmatic purpose. The theory holds that the way the TT eventually shapes up is determined to a great extent by the function, or ‘skopos’ intended for it in the target contexts. Such a strategy can and often does run counter to orthodox equivalence-based procedures since in the light of skopos considerations, the end essentially justifies the means VERMEER: An expert must be able to say - and this implies both knowledge and a duty to use it - what is what. The translator is such an expert. It is thus up to him (sic) to decide, for instance, what role a ST plays in his translation action. The decisive factor here is the purpose, the skopos, of the communication in a given situation. (Vermeer 1989: 174) PRINCIPLES OF SKOPOS THEORY 1. A TT is determined by its skopos 2. A TT is an offer of information in a target culture and TL concerning an offer of information in a source culture and SL  3. The function of a TT is not necessarily the same as that of the ST 4. A TT must be internally coherent (coherence rule) 5. A TT must be coherent with the ST (fidelity rule) 6. the 5 rules stand in hierarchical order: SKOPOS RULE predominating 2 main objections to this theory 1. Skopos theory is meant as a general theory while it is not valid for literary texts 2. In ‘skopo’ theory, insufficient attention to the linguistic nature of ST is paid Nord, who is a functionalist, has found a solution: (vermeer’s article) TO TRANSLATION AS A PURPOSEFUL ACTIVITY ➡️ NORD Nord’s FUNCTIONALISM: distinguishes between documentary vs. instrumental translation (macro-function) Documentary: aims at producing in the TL a kind of document of (certain aspects of) a communicative interaction in which a source-culture sender communicates with a source-culture audience via the ST under source-culture conditions. (Nord 2018: 46) - Preserving the ST’s features & sender’s intentions (4 readers to understand the foreign context) Instrumental: aims at producing in the TL an instrument for a new communicative interaction between the source e source-culture sender and a target-culture audience, using (certain aspects of) the ST as a model.” (Nord 2018: 46) - Tries to ensure effective functionality of the text in the target culture DOCUMENTARY VS INSTRUMENTAL TRANSLATION Documentary translation can be of 4 types: Instrumental translation can be of 3 types: Interlineal : very close to the Equifunctional: ST and TT have the linguistic element of the source same function(s). language (not only ST); can also be Heterofunctional: ST and TT have considered a word-for-word different function(s) translation, typical of encyclopedias. Homologous: not as common as the previous ones; translation that closely Literal: slight adaptation is carried mirrors the source text in both form out; it can be used when making and function, preserving its structure, quotes (quoting a direct source) style, and meaning; aims at finding a (ex.political speeches) + grammar & culturally appropriate counterpart readability purposes Philological: usually typical of literary text; ex. in a translation of a distant language/culture, the translator tries to maintain the cultural elements of the text, providing an explanation to the target reader (ex. though notes).  Exoticizing: retains flavor of a different culture / language is maintained - exotic for the reader because it has new elements; to preserve its ‘foreignness’ 4 the target readers 06/11/2024 5 theoretical questions (each may include more than 1 answer) type of task: ○ multiple choice ○ fill in each blank by choosing one of the options from a list ○ complete the following assertion by filling in the blank with the missing word(s) ○ true false with motivation ○ open-ended question THE CONCEPT OF ‘WHOLE LANGUAGE’ whole language: idea that a language is a comprehensive system, encompassing all its varieties and forms ➡️ ‘too diffuse to be operationally useful’ CATFORD: “The concept of ‘whole language’ is so vast and heterogeneous that is is not operationally useful for many linguistic purposes, descriptive comparative and pedagogical. It is therefore desirable to have a framework of categories for the classification of ‘sub-languages’ or varieties within a total language. Catford suggest to create a framework of categories, for the classification of sublanguages or varieties within a total language 2 dimensions of variations can be observed: (varieties can be according to use / user) 1. User: who the speaker writer is 2. use: occupation of the speaker, occasion: formal/informal Examples: Pygmalion The flower Girl: aint no call to meddle with me, he aint (language variation according to the user) poor flower vendor - speaks cockney (which is a geographical dialect spoken in london) Geographical factor - working class: social factor - user of non modern standard english: temporal factor House of Commons Mr Speaker: formal language : connected to the situation, therefore to the use of the language The concept of institutional-communicative context focuses on understanding the dynamics of communication, specifically who is communicating, with whom, about what, and how it is done. It combines several important dimensions of communication: User-related varieties 🟰 dialects Use-related varieties 🟰registers Dialects are indicative of the speaker’s Registers mediate between language and identity situation; they communicate certain values 1. geographical relevant to the situation to hand. 2. historical 1. field (domain of interaction) 3. social 2. tenor 4. idiolectal 3. mode (mode of interaction) Sometimes use and user intersect: however we need to be able to distinguish them while translating IDIOLECT: which means individual dialect (si trova nel libro verde: translation: and advanced resource book for students) Idiolect is the individual dialect: the variety related to the personal identity of the user - Does it have to be translated? It is not always necessary to translate idiolects: the personal identity of the user may not be relevant situationally: it usually is not, for example, in scientific or ‘official’ texts: however, this is not always the case, particularly in plays and novels. However: If markers of individuality, he suggests that ‘equivalence’ is aimed at e.g. plays novels - Translator’s responsibility to distinguish them Intentionality: This covers the pragmatic aspects of communication—why something is said and the force behind the utterance. For example, if a statement is meant to command, persuade, inform, or request, this is part of its intentionality. Intertextuality: This refers to how texts evoke or reference other texts, whether explicitly or implicitly. For example, a legal document may not just be understood in isolation; it may draw upon previous legal texts or cases to be fully understood. Social Context: The socio-cultural and socio-textual elements influence communication as well. (Can be socio cultural or socio textual practices) USE: TENOR Crucial factor: relays the relationship between the addresser and the addressee (Hatim Mason) EG: social role relationship, social distance It has to do with the level of formality of the relationship between the participants in the linguistic event. Tenor and Field can overlap  The relationship between tenor (role relationships) and field (what is happening) affects the technicality of the language. The more formal the context, the more technical the language. The overlap between tenor and mode gives rise to what Gregory and Carrol call: Functional Tenor is the purpose for which language is used (e.g., to persuade, inform, exhort) considering role relationships and interaction style. goes beyond formality and technicality to include the nature of the interaction: ○ Direct vs. Indirect: Informal, direct face-to-face communication vs. formal, indirect communication (e.g., writer–audience). ○ Formality Levels: Persuader (semi-formal) vs. informer (formal) vs. lawmaker (ultra-formal). Our investigation of both personal tenor (e.g. casual, deferential) and functional tenor (detached reporting, involved persuasion), with technicality and role relationships (e.g. informer, arguer) forming the two basic aspects of functional tenor, has highlighted some basic differences in how language varies. However, for rhetorical goals such as persuading or informing to be properly pursued, and for role relationships to stabilize, there has to exist a negotiation between speaker and hearer or writer and reader, forming a level of semiotic interaction. They perceive field, tenor and mode, respectively, in terms of: 1. Ideational Resources: - Concerned with the field of the text, or what is happening in and around the text (the subject matter or content). 2. Interpersonal Resources: - Relates to the tenor of the text, or the attitudes and evaluations of the participants (the speaker’s or writer’s stance toward the content and the audience). 3. Textual Resources: - Focuses on the mode of the text, or how the ideational and interpersonal meanings are structured to create cohesion and coherence within the text. Field, tenor and mode define the semiotic domain of context: field: focuses on the activities or social processes happening in a situation tenor: relates to the participants in the communication and the relationship between them. It highlights aspects like power and solidarity, determining the social distance mode: is about the physical distance between the participants, which is shaped by the medium of communication. Michael Gregory’s article on translation explores language variation through Firthian linguistics, highlighting key concepts relevant to translating texts across cultures and languages. Below is a more concise summary: 1. Language Varieties and Restricted Languages  Restricted Languages: Languages consist of various sub-languages or varieties influenced by factors like time, place, and social context. These are essential for translation, as they reflect specific language uses. Idiolects: These are individual language habits tied to a person’s identity, important in literary translation (e.g., Shakespeare’s unique characters). Translators must preserve these linguistic markers of individuality, though equivalents may not always exist in the target language. 2. Dialect Translation Standard Dialects: A language’s standard dialect remains stable across regions and can usually be translated directly. However, non-standard dialects (e.g., regional speech) present challenges. Dialect Variation: Example: Cockney (a British dialect) is often translated into Parigot (a French dialect), based on social rather than geographic criteria. The focus is on social and cultural markers rather than phonological features. 3. Diatypic Varieties of Language Gregory introduces diatypic varieties, which describe language use in context, including: Field of Discourse: What the language is about (e.g., technical, everyday conversation). Translation challenges arise when specialized vocabulary differs between languages. Mode of Discourse: Whether language is spoken or written. It includes distinctions like spontaneous speech (conversation) vs. non-spontaneous (recitations, scripted dialogue). These distinctions matter in translation. Tenor of Discourse: The relationship between the speaker and the audience, which can be personal (formal vs. informal) or functional (persuading, informing). Translators must capture the correct tone and social roles. 4. Register Halliday’s Definition: Register refers to the combination of field, mode, and tenor in a given situation. It dictates the language choices used in specific contexts (e.g., scientific writing vs. casual speech). Equivalence of Register: In translation, achieving register equivalence means maintaining the same language function and social context in the target language, which may require adapting tone and formality. 5. Challenges for Translators  Translators must navigate both linguistic and cultural differences. For instance, translating informal speech may require changing the formality of language or dialects, ensuring the original tone and context are preserved. Diachronic Variation: Language variation over time, focusing on how language changes across different historical periods. Diatopic Variation: Language variation based on geographic regions or dialects, showing how language differs across places. Diaphasic Variation: Language variation based on context or registers, depending on the situation, formality, or purpose of communication (e.g., formal vs. informal). Diastratic Variation: Language variation based on social factors, such as class, education, or social status, influencing how language is used. Diamesic Variation: Language variation according to the medium of communication, such as spoken vs. written language. WHAT IS AUDIO DESCRIPTION? - ‘either live or recorded information provided by a trained describer that provides descriptions of visual components of an event to become accessible to those who are blind or of low vision’ - ‘a form of accessible audiovisual translation that transforms the most relevant meaning-making visual elements of a semiotically complex source text into words for the benefit of a blind and visually impaired audience’ - the visual made verbal - An INTERSEMIOTIC translation (Jakobson) form of translation - Studied within AVT and Media Accessibility (MA) Space and time constraints are important: they have to be well balanced with the ST Where can it be found: TV, on demand streaming, movies, in the air (planes), web, theatre, museums. WHAT IS AD IN A MUSEUM CONTEXT? - Museums and galleries have traditionally been considered the focus of visual experiences - Accessed through sight and inaccessible to blind and partially sighted visitors - MUSEUM AD: ‘a verbal description that seeks to snake the visual element os the diverse contents of museums and galleries accessible to blind and partially sighted people  - Museum AD, Art AD: emerging sub-filed within AD D (academic research and professional experience) Are audio descriptions and general audio guides the same thing? NO - A general audio guide is an ‘informative’ script-based form of public speaking EX from NYC MoMA: audio guide vs audio description EN AD: pierrot is not a part of the italian commedia dell’arte ➡️ IT translation: il costume bianco di Pulcinella, il buffone triste della Commedia dell’Arte The style gallery: ‘Bare pine floorboards” : why was it underlined in the AD? - It’s a cultural issue: because carpets are the usual floorboard - It’s more slippery, therefore useful to know for the visually impaired WHAT TYPES OF MUSEUM AD: Live vs recorded (or produced by text-to-speech software) AD - Live description: face to face on a one-to-one basis or to a small group - Recorded: audio descriptive guide (stand alone AD’s) - On site vs online AD - Mobile device - Museum website Museum AD: are an intersemiotic translation practice; We can consider: - The artwork / artefact: as the nonverbal ST - Script (for the AD) verbal written-to-be-read TT - The Audio description: as the verbal TT (final product, used by the visually impaired) Interlingual translation practice: Bartolini & manfredi - The artwork / artefact: as the nonverbal ST - L1 Audio description: verbal source text - L2 Audio description: as the TT We can state that we have a ‘double’ ST (artwork + L1) IWONA MAZUR Audio Description: Overview and Key Concepts Introduction (Chapter 1): Audio description (AD) offers a means for blind and visually impaired people to access visual content, functioning as a “prosthesis” that narrates visual elements in media, evoking images in listeners’ minds. This overview covers definitions, types, history, theory, and societal impacts of AD, providing a starting point for readers interested in this evolving field. Definition and Typologies of AD (Chapter 2) Definition and Audience: AD provides an audio narrative that describes important visual elements of content like movies, TV shows, theater, and museum exhibits, creating a cohesive experience for the visually impaired. The primary audience includes people with various visual impairments (e.g., blindness, cataracts, macular degeneration), while the secondary audience can include people without impairments who benefit from AD in specific situations, such as older adults, those with cognitive challenges, or viewers multitasking. Types of AD: AD can be classified as dynamic (for moving visuals) or static (for images like paintings), and as recorded or live. Screen AD is primarily for movies and television, aligning AD with scene timing to fit between dialogue and sound effects. (Semi-)Live AD is used in events like theater, opera, or sports, where AD may be pre-scripted yet adapted on the spot. Live AD includes elements like audio introductions (AIs) or “touch tours,” where blind viewers can explore props, costumes, or set designs. Museum AD is often independent, offering visitors information on layout, directions, and artwork details, either through recorded guides or in-person assistance. Historical Development of AD (Chapter 3) Early Beginnings: AD’s formal roots trace to Washington D.C. in the 1980s, where the first play was audio-described in 1981. AD then spread to TV and museums, especially in the U.S. and U.K., where legislation later supported its expansion. For instance, the U.K.’s Broadcasting Act (1996) and Communication Act (2003) set the stage for making AD a regular service. Growth in Europe: The 2010 European Parliament Audiovisual Media Services Directive further boosted AD by recognizing it as a right for disabled people to access media, driving individual EU countries to establish their own guidelines for AD provision. Theoretical Foundations of AD (Chapter 4) Audiovisual Translation and Media Accessibility: AD is often categorized as a type of audiovisual translation (AVT) and media accessibility service. Unlike typical translation, AD is unique because it transforms non-verbal (visual) information into verbal descriptions. Traditionally, translation categories include interlingual (between languages), intralingual (within a language), and intersemiotic (between semiotic systems). AD falls under intersemiotic translation, as it translates images into words. Multisemiotic and Multimodal Approach: AD’s complexity goes beyond simply translating images into words. Since AD handles multimodal content (like film or theater), it requires creating a verbal narrative that conveys images, sounds, and dialogue together. This demands balancing the description with the original media’s rhythm, timing, and interrelations between characters, space, and time. The describer’s challenge is to turn a multimodal text that sighted viewers experience as a whole into a linear, accessible narrative. This involves careful selection of essential details to ensure AD users can piece together a “mental image” of the scene. Describers must focus on coherence, context, and delivering concise, vivid language for AD to succeed. Research Trends in AD (Chapter 5) Early Research and Key Debates: Research on AD began by analyzing it as a text type and addressing whether AD should remain objective. AD guidelines generally discourage subjective interpretation, yet in cases where facial expressions or emotions are complex, simplified or interpretive descriptions may be more accessible. Studies now explore AD’s impact on users and compare different approaches, like describing emotions explicitly vs. detailing facial cues. Interdisciplinary Growth: AD research has expanded across disciplines—linguistics, media studies, psychology, and sociology—broadening the methods and frameworks used to study AD and its effects. MANFREDI - BARTOLINI 3. A Didactic Framework for Museum AD Training: A Proposal This section presents a training framework for postgraduate students in translation studies, combining theoretical and practical approaches to museum audio description (AD). 3.1 Theoretical Level The theoretical component starts with introducing functionalism in translation, using Nord’s model, which emphasizes understanding the purpose of the text and the audience. Reiss’ text typology—distinguishing between informative, expressive, and directive functions—also guides students to evaluate different functions of museum texts in interlingual translation workshops. This framework helps students build awareness of the AD’s intended role within the museum’s communication goals. Museum AD is then discussed as a type of intersemiotic translation, transforming visual and spatial information into verbal descriptions that make artwork accessible to blind or partially sighted individuals. By understanding AD within the fields of Translation Studies, Audiovisual Translation, Media Accessibility, and Museum Studies, students learn to treat AD as a form of museum interpretation, adding value for diverse audiences. The theoretical level also covers how AD is often multimodal, encouraging descriptions that might incorporate sensory details beyond visual aspects (e.g., sound, touch, or even smell). Through case studies and practical examples, students explore how museum AD functions within a museum’s broader accessibility goals and how it can provide an inclusive experience, allowing sighted visitors to gain new perspectives. AD’s goal to be informative, evocative, and enjoyable for a broad audience is emphasized as well. 3.2 Practical Level The practical training framework has two main stages, each containing three specific steps: (1) discussing the translation brief, (2) analyzing the source text, and (3) identifying functional priorities. 1. Intersemiotic Translation Practice: Students begin by creating ADs for artworks in Italian. Following Mazur’s model, adapted for static art like paintings and sculptures, they treat the artwork itself as the source text (ST) and the AD as the target text (TT). They conduct a functional analysis of the artwork, focusing on aspects like the artwork’s intended purpose, its key visual elements, and the emotional tone or message it conveys. 2. Key tasks include: ○ Translation Brief: Understanding the intended function of the AD for the museum audience. This could range from informative (conveying historical context) to expressive or appellative (evoking an emotional response or engagement). ○ Source Text (ST) Analysis: Identifying relevant details about the artwork, such as the title, artist, style, spatial elements, and cultural references. Students consider how these details shape the audience’s experience. ○ Functional Priorities: Deciding what elements are essential to convey in the AD based on its purpose. For example, if an AD is meant to be evocative, students might focus on describing textures, colors, or the emotional impact of the artwork. 3. They practice prioritizing certain details over others to avoid overloading the listener, and they explore strategies for making the description both informative and accessible, mindful of AD’s primary goal of bridging sensory gaps. 4. Interlingual Translation Practice: After producing the Italian AD, students translate it into English, treating the Italian AD (L1) and the artwork itself as a dual source text. They consider the needs of a different audience, which may include international tourists, language learners, or people with cognitive disabilities. The main steps in this stage are: ○ Translation Brief: Students analyze the context and audience of the English AD, adjusting the content for clarity and cultural relevance. They may need to consider different registers or simplify complex terms for diverse English-speaking audiences. ○ Source Text Analysis: This includes analyzing both the Italian AD and the visual elements of the artwork. Students consult images or even visit the  artwork when possible to ensure the translation is accurate and aligned with the visual experience. ○ Functional Priorities and Translation Strategy: Here, students adapt their language and style based on cultural considerations and accessibility needs, ensuring that their translation is faithful to the original artwork while being accessible to a broader audience. They may adjust the tone, select more familiar terms, or emphasize culturally significant details to resonate with English-speaking listeners. 4. Concluding Remarks The model, which applies Nord’s functionally oriented translation approach to both intersemiotic and interlingual translation practices, offers a structured yet flexible framework for training students in museum AD. Because students are likely familiar with Nord’s functional model, they can adapt it easily to the specific needs of museum AD, making it a natural fit for preparing students for work in museum accessibility. HATIM MASON THE ARGUMENTATIVE TEXT TYPE Argumentative texts focus on evaluating relationships between ideas or concepts. According to Beaugrande and Dressler (1981), these texts are used to promote beliefs or ideas, presenting them as true or false, or positive or negative. They often include concepts like reason, value, and opposition and make use of cohesive devices such as repetition, parallelism, and paraphrasing to emphasize their points. Example: One text (Text 8F1) discusses the assumption that all OPEC meetings focus on prices. The text rebuts this assumption by contrasting it with a particular meeting focused on other issues. A key cohesive device in this example is the repeated phrase “it is not primarily about … it is primarily about …” which highlights the contrast in a way that adds an ironic undertone, reinforcing the argumentative stance. A translation challenge can arise when translators misinterpret structures like “certainly … but …”, which functions as a concession, rather than as a confirmation (as in “it certainly is …”). For instance, in Arabic, the equivalent of “certainly” may often be used as a confirmation rather than a concession, leading to potential translation errors. Understanding text-type criteria, including syntactic and lexical markers, helps translators handle such nuances appropriately. THE EXPOSITORY TEXT TYPE Expository texts focus on explaining or analyzing concepts by breaking them down into parts or combining them into a whole (Werlich, 1976). These texts are typically more objective and descriptive, aiming to inform the reader without overt persuasion or judgment. Example: Text 8H is an example of exposition. It objectively contrasts a future OPEC meeting with previous ones, listing specific ways in which they differ: “Tomorrow’s meeting of OPEC differs from previous meetings in two ways. Firstly, … Secondly, …”. Exposition has two main forms: descriptive texts, which focus on objects or situations, and narrative texts, which arrange events or actions in a sequence. While description and narration are usually easy to recognize, differentiating exposition from argumentation can be subtle. In argumentation, the text’s purpose is to persuade, while exposition aims to provide a detached account of the topic. Monitoring and Managing A critical difference between argumentation and exposition is situation management versus monitoring. Argumentation often aims to manage or steer the reader’s viewpoint in a way that aligns with the author’s goals. In contrast, expository texts monitor a situation, offering a neutral account rather than a directed perspective. Tone-setter and Scene-setter In argumentation, the opening sentence typically sets the tone and requires substantiation, following a structure like: Tone-setter > Thesis substantiated In exposition, the opening sentence instead sets the scene and is further explained: Scene-setter > Aspects of the scene expounded Evaluative tone and comparison are more common in argumentative texts, while expository texts prioritize straightforward, less marked syntax and semantics. Evaluative Texture Argumentative texts are characterized by evaluative language and cohesive devices that emphasize points, such as repetition and parallelism. Expository texts, however, tend to use simpler structures. Translators can look for these features, such as references to people, specific verb semantics (e.g., perceiving, saying), or lexical density, to help differentiate between these text types. THE INSTRUCTIONAL TEXT TYPE Instructional texts aim to shape future behavior, often by directing or guiding the reader’s actions. There are two subtypes: Instruction with option, as seen in advertising and consumer advice, where readers are encouraged but not obligated to act. Instruction without option, as in contracts or regulations, where the reader’s compliance is mandatory. Example: Text 8I is a translation of a set of regulations, demonstrating a case where instructions are not clearly conveyed in English. The phrase “are granted” could imply either past information (informational) or a directive (instructional). In an instructional text, a clearer alternative would be “are hereby granted” or “shall be granted”, removing ambiguity and enhancing clarity. Instruction with option, such as advertising, resembles argumentation since both seek to influence behavior. Reiss’ (1976) principles outline the features necessary for successful persuasive texts, including comprehensibility (clear language), memorability (repetition, slogans), emotional appeal (playing on feelings), and suggestivity (implied judgments). Example: In advertising, Text 8J illustrates this concept with a car advertisement for the Honda Legend Coupe. Although the car lacks the power of its racing counterparts, the ad uses persuasive language to evoke excitement, such as “its 2.7 liter 24 valve V6 engine will whisk you from 0-60 mph in 8 exhilarating seconds.” This style, rich in vivid language, evokes an emotional response rather than presenting a logical argument, aiming to influence potential buyers’ decisions through appeal rather than reason. Summary of Text Typology The discussed typology can be visualized as follows: 1. Exposition: Focus on explaining concepts (e.g., lists of reasons or characteristics). : ○ Includes Narration and Description. ○ function is to MONITOR 2. Argumentation: Focus on persuading the reader, with subtypes like: ○ Through-argumentation: Defending a thesis. ○ Counter-argumentation: Refuting a thesis. ○ function is to MANAGE 3. Instruction: Focus on directing future behavior. ○ With option (e.g., advertising). ○ Without option (e.g., contracts). NORD Translation Types Based on Text Concepts (Reiss 1977) Reiss (1977) connects text types with translation approaches and objectives, stating that different translation methods—like word-for-word, literal, or communicative translation—can be appropriate depending on the translation’s purpose. She advocates for communicative translation as the ideal, where the target text achieves the same communicative effect as the source text, maintaining equivalence in syntax, meaning, and pragmatic use. Vermeer’s View: Reiss’s ideas were expanded by Hans Vermeer, who viewed translation as “imitatio,” or imitation, in modern translation theory. Vermeer notes that many theories narrowly equate translation with "translatability," leading to limited notions of translation adequacy (Toury 1980). Documentary vs. Instrumental Translation (Nord 1989 and Later) Christiane Nord builds on House and Reiss’s ideas, proposing two main types of translation: documentary and instrumental, each serving distinct communicative functions in the target culture. - Documentary Forms of Translation Documentary translation creates a target text (TT) that reflects the source text (ST) as closely as possible, often used when showing linguistic or cultural elements from the source language. This form includes several subtypes: 1. Interlinear Translation: Focuses on displaying the ST’s morphology and syntax. Often used in comparative linguistics, this form shows the structural aspects of one language using another. ○ Example: An interlinear translation of Spanish, “Estando así en la cama, rogó a los yernos,” is rendered word-for-word in English as “Being so in the bed he/she asked (to) the sons-in-law…” 2. Literal or Grammar Translation: Aims to closely reproduce the ST’s structure while adapting idioms and syntax to the target language norms, often used in quoted speech in news or scholarly contexts. ○ Example: The translation of a South African Sotho expression, “Mw- m- má wo abenkúm,” into English as “I do not give (it) to you with the left hand,” shows each element’s function (e.g., 1SG for first person singular).  3. Philological or Learned Translation: Adds explanations about cultural or linguistic specifics, often seen in translations of historical texts or literature from distant cultures. ○ Example: In a translation of an Indonesian novel, the historical figure Diponegoro is footnoted: “Javanese prince who led a five-year holy war against the Dutch.” 4. Exoticizing Translation: Maintains the cultural elements of the ST, creating an exotic feel for readers unfamiliar with the source culture. The TT functions as a cultural window rather than direct communication. ○ Example: In One Hundred Years of Solitude, a description of Macondo allows Colombian readers to see their world through García Márquez’s narrative, while European readers view it as an exotic portrayal. Instrumental Forms of Translation Instrumental translations aim to serve the same function as the original text in the target culture, adapting to the TT audience’s context. There are three subtypes: 1. Equifunctional Translation: Maintains the same function as the ST, commonly applied to technical texts or instructions. ○ Example: Standardized instructions like “No entry” are rendered across languages as Zutritt verboten! (German), Défense d’entrer (French), and Prohibido entrar (Spanish), showing universal communicative intent. 2. Heterofunctional Translation: Changes the ST function to better suit the target audience, often seen with literature where cultural or historical context has shifted. ○ Example: Eberhard Petschinka’s adaptation of The Bouncers for Vienna shifts British working-class references to Viennese equivalents to retain the play’s appeal for Austrian audiences. 3. Homologous Translation: Retains the original’s literary or cultural status in the TT, often seen in poetry or classic literature to respect genre conventions. ○ Example: Ben Johnson’s translation of Catullus’s Poem 13 uses poetic English to echo the original’s literary status, preserving form and elegance in translation. Norms and Conventions in Functional Translation Norms guide functional translation, influenced by cultural expectations and genre conventions (Toury 1980; Chesterman 1997). For example, genre conventions vary significantly between cultures, and adhering to these norms helps translators maintain authenticity and functionality in the target language. VERMEER Chapter 17: Skopos and Commission in Translational Action 1. Synopsis Vermeer introduces Skopos Theory, which is part of translational action theory. In this theory: - Translation is not just about converting words from one language to another; it is an intentional action with a goal or skopos (Greek for “purpose”). - Translational action leads to a target text (the translation) created to fulfill a specific purpose in the target language and culture. - The translator is the expert in this process and is responsible for carrying out the translation in a way that meets the specified skopos. For Vermeer, defining the skopos is essential to ensure a successful translation, as it helps clarify what the translation is meant to achieve. This goal is typically established by the client (or commissioner) in a commission, which outlines what the translation should accomplish and how it should be done. 2. Skopos and Translation Vermeer emphasizes that translations are not just direct transcriptions of the source text into another language; they need to be adapted to fit the cultural context of the target audience. He makes several important points: - Source vs. Target Culture: Source texts are usually created for the cultural context of their original language. As such, they may not resonate or make sense in the target culture if translated word-for-word. - Purpose-Oriented Adaptation: The target text should be oriented toward the needs and norms of the target culture, and the translation approach may vary greatly depending on the skopos. Example: Jokes ➡️ Vermeer illustrates this with the example of jokes. Jokes are often culturally specific, relying on cultural references or wordplay unique to the source culture. A literal translation might strip the joke of its meaning and humor, making it ineffective for the target audience. Instead, the translator might replace the joke with one that has a similar effect in the target culture, thus respecting the skopos. Intertextual Coherence: Vermeer introduces the concept of intertextual coherence, or the alignment between source and target texts, which depends on the skopos. If a close imitation of the original is needed (for example, to provide a linguistically faithful rendering), the translator may aim for higher intertextual coherence. In other cases, where cultural adaptation is required, the target text may diverge significantly from the source. 3. Arguments Against the Skopos Theory Vermeer responds to common objections to Skopos Theory, addressing both general criticism and specific cases: Objection 1: Aimless Actions in Literature: Some critics argue that certain creative works, like literature, have no clear purpose and are therefore “aimless.” ○ Vermeer responds that even literature has a purpose, albeit sometimes implicit. For instance, Goethe carefully crafted the rhythm of his poetry, showing that he intended his work to have a specific aesthetic effect, which suggests purpose. Objection 2: Purpose-Free Translations: Another criticism is that some translations, especially literary ones, may lack a clear purpose. ○ Vermeer argues that every translation has a purpose, even if it’s as simple as replicating the source text as faithfully as possible. This, too, is a skopos, as it defines a goal for the translator. - He breaks down skopos into three parts: ★ Process Goal: The objective of the translation process itself. ★ Result Goal: The intended function of the translated text. ★ Mode Goal: The way in which the translation is carried out. Vermeer asserts that even in literature, every action—including the creation and translation of a literary text—is directed by a purpose, even if that purpose is implicit. 4. The Translation Commission The commission is a critical part of the translation process. It is the set of instructions, either explicit or implied, that outlines what the translation should achieve. Vermeer explains that a commission includes: The Goal (Skopos): A statement of what the translation should accomplish. Conditions: Practical elements like deadlines, fees, or stylistic requirements, which are essential for fulfilling the skopos effectively. Vermeer stresses the importance of negotiation between the client and translator to ensure the commission is clear. The translator, as the expert, may need to educate the client about the target culture to ensure the translation is appropriate and effective. For example, if a client wants to retain cultural references that won’t make sense in the target culture, the translator should discuss alternative approaches to meet the skopos under the given conditions. The commission depends on the needs of the target culture and is only indirectly connected to the source culture. If the target culture has requirements that can’t be met with a straightforward translation, adaptation may be necessary to create an effective text for the new audience. 5. Skopos Theory in Practice Vermeer explains that Skopos Theory is flexible and does not require a translation to follow one specific approach. Instead, the skopos determines the approach based on what will best serve the target culture’s needs. He illustrates this flexibility through different types of translations: Literal vs. Adapted Translation: Sometimes, the purpose may call for a very literal translation, such as in legal or technical contexts where accuracy is paramount. Other times, the translation may need to be adapted to resonate culturally or emotionally with the target audience, as in advertising or literary texts. Example: Homer’s Odyssey ➡️ Vermeer notes an example of how different skopoi can lead to different translations. Homer’s Odyssey has been translated from an epic poem into a novel format in German (by Schadewaldt, 1958) to make it more accessible to contemporary readers. Here, the change in format reflects a skopos aimed at readability rather than strict fidelity to the original epic form. 6. Final Example: Legal Ambiguity Vermeer concludes with a detailed example that illustrates how the skopos can shape translation choices: French Will Example: In a French legal case, a will’s phrasing was ambiguous due to an ink blot, which created confusion over whether a sum was meant to be split between two people or given twice. If this were being translated for a court, the skopos would be to maintain the ambiguity so the judge could understand the issue clearly. In this case, the translator might add a note explaining that the original text is unclear and provide both possible interpretations. Alternative Skopos in a Novel: However, if the same scenario were part of a fictional story, the skopos would shift to maintaining the narrative flow. Here, the translator might recreate the ambiguity in a way that fits naturally within the story, such as introducing a similar uncertainty around punctuation (e.g., “2,000 or 200,000 francs”). This approach allows the story’s ambiguity to be preserved without interrupting the reading experience. This example highlights Vermeer’s point that translation is not done “in a void” but is always shaped by a skopos or commission that dictates how to approach each text. Summary In Skopos and Commission in Translational Action, Vermeer argues that translation is inherently purposeful. Translators should always be guided by the skopos, which defines the aim of their work, and a commission that clarifies this aim. This perspective challenges the traditional notion of translation fidelity, suggesting that different skopoi can lead to very different approaches, all of which are valid if they meet the needs of the target culture. Ultimately, Vermeer’s Skopos Theory empowers translators to make informed, purposeful decisions to produce translations that achieve their intended effect.