Psychoanalytic Theory by Sigmund Freud - PDF

Psychoanalysis (Sigmund Freud) Tanvi Auradkar Table of contents Sigmund Freud and psychoanalysis Psychoanalytic perspectives 01 02 Psychosexual developme 03...

Psychoanalysis (Sigmund Freud) Tanvi Auradkar Table of contents Sigmund Freud and psychoanalysis Psychoanalytic perspectives 01 02 Psychosexual developme 03 03 Models of mind: Id, Ego and Superego 04 Defense mechanisms Dream analysis 05 06 Criticism and application 07  01 Sigmund Freud and psychoanalysis  Sigmund Freud The founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, was born in Austria and spent most of his childhood and adult life in Vienna (Gay, 2006). He entered medical school and trained as a neurologist, earning a medical degree in 1881. Soon after his graduation, he set up in private practice and began treating patients with psychological disorders. His colleague Dr. Josef Breuer’s intriguing experience with a patient, “Anna O.,” who experienced a range of physical symptoms with no apparent physical cause (Breuer & Freud, 1895/2001) drew his attention. Dr. Breuer found that her symptoms abated when he helped her recover memories of traumatic experiences that she had repressed from conscious awareness. This case sparked Freud’s interest in the unconscious mind and spurred the development of some of his most influential ideas.  Freud’s theory According to Freud's theory, there are a few different factors that affect personality Cathexis and Anticathexis According to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, all psychic energy is generated by libido. Freud suggested that our mental states were influenced by two competing forces: cathexis and anticathexis. Cathexis was described as an investment of mental energy in a person, idea, or object. Anticathexis involves the ego blocking the socially unacceptable needs of the id. Repressing urges and desires is one common form of anticathexis, but this involves a significant investment of energy.  Freud’s theory Life Instincts and Death Instincts Freud also believed that much of human behavior was motivated by two driving instincts: life instincts and death instincts. Life instincts (Eros) are those that relate to a basic need for survival, reproduction, and pleasure. They include such things as the need for food, shelter, love, and sex. Death instincts (Thanatos) are the result of an unconscious wish for death, which Freud believed all humans have.5 Self-destructive behavior was one expression of the death drive, according to Freud. However, he believed that these death instincts were largely tempered by life instincts.  02 Psychoanalytic perspectives  4 components of psychoanalysis Interpretation Transference analysis Technical neutrality Countertransference analysis  Interpretation Interpretation refers to the analyst’s hypothesizing of their client’s unconscious conflicts. These hypotheses are communicated verbally to the client. There are three stages of interpretation (Kernberg, 2016): Clarification Where the analyst tries to clarify what is going on in the patient’s conscious mind Confrontation Gently aims to bring nonverbal aspects of the client’s behavior into their awareness Interpretation When the analyst proposes their hypothesis of the unconscious meaning that relates each aspect of the client’s communication with the other  Transference analysis Transference refers to the repetition of unconscious conflicts rooted in the client’s relational past in the relationship with the analyst. Transference analysis involves tracking elements of the client’s verbal and nonverbal communications that aim to influence the analyst’s behavior toward the client (Racker, 1982).  Technical neutrality Technical neutrality refers to the analyst’s commitment to remain neutral and avoid taking sides in the client’s internal conflicts. The analyst strives to remain neutral and nonjudgmental by maintaining a clinical distance from the client’s external reality. Additionally, technical neutrality demands that analysts refrain from imposing their value systems on the client (Kernberg, 2016).  Countertransference analysis Countertransference refers to the analyst’s responses and reactions to the client and the material they present during sessions, most especially the client’s transference. Countertransference analysis involves tracking elements of the analyst’s own dispositional transference to the client that is co-determined by the client (Racker, 1982). Countertransference analysis enables the analyst to maintain clinical boundaries and avoid acting out in the relationship with the client.  Psychodynamic Vs Psychoanalysis Psychodynamic theory is an evolutionary offshoot of psychoanalytic theory and keeps key elements of the psychoanalytic theory of human development, psychological functioning, and therapeutic technique (Berzoff et al., 2008). Both theoretical approaches agree on the following: The existence of unconscious drives/instincts and defense mechanisms The impact of the unconscious on human personality and behavior The importance of our earliest experiences in shaping later relational patterns The impact of internal factors on behavior, meaning behavior is never under a client’s complete control (Berzoff et al., 2008)  Psychodynamic Vs Psychoanalysis A psychoanalyst will see their client (termed a patient, usually) every weekday over an indeterminate period of years. Meanwhile, a psychodynamic therapist will see a client less frequently, perhaps once or twice a week for several months or a few years, depending on the client’s needs. Psychodynamic therapy is more client centered in this respect (Berzoff et al., 2008). A psychodynamic therapist may include techniques that are not psychoanalytic to work with transference and countertransference. These may include communication skills, such as active listening, empathy, and expressive arts interventions. Psychodynamic therapists are not limited in their approach by the traditional pillars of psychoanalytic technique  03 Models of mind Model of mind Conscious Housing our current thoughts, feelings, and perceptual focus Preconscious (sometimes called the subconscious) The home of everything we can recall or retrieve from our memory Unconscious At the deepest level of our minds resides a repository of the processes that drive our behavior, including biologically determined instinctual desires (Pick, 2015). Structure of mind Id The id operates at an unconscious level as the motor of our two main instinctual drives: Eros, or the survival instinct that drives us to engage in life-sustaining activities, and Thanatos, or the death instinct that drives destructive, aggressive, and violent behavior. Ego The ego acts as a filter for the id that works as both a conduit for and check on our unconscious drives. The ego ensures our needs are met in a socially appropriate way. It is oriented to navigating reality and begins to develop in infancy. Superego The superego is the term Freud gives to “conscience” where morality and higher principles reside, encouraging us to act in socially and morally acceptable ways (Pick, 2015).  04 Psychosexual development Stages of psychosexual development Freudian theory suggests that as children develop, they progress through a series of psychosexual stages. At each stage, the libido's pleasure-seeking energy is focused on a different part of the body. The five stages of psychosexual development are:7 The oral stage: The libidinal energies are focused on the mouth. The anal stage: The libidinal energies are focused on the anus. The phallic stage: The libidinal energies are focused on the penis or clitoris. The latent stage: A period of calm in which little libidinal interest is present. The genital stage: The libidinal energies are focused on the genitals. The outcomes Successful resolution Fixation The successful completion of each stage The successful completion of each stage leads to leads to a healthy personality as an a healthy personality as an adult. If, however, a adult. If, however, a conflict remains conflict remains unresolved at any particular unresolved at any particular stage, the stage, the individual might remain fixated or individual might remain fixated or stuck stuck at that particular point of development. at that particular point of development.  05 Defense mechanism What and why of defense mechanism In psychoanalytic theory, a defence mechanism is an unconscious psychological operation that functions to protect a person from anxiety-producing thoughts and feelings related to internal conflicts and outer stressors. Freud believed these three components of the mind are in constant conflict because each has a different goal. Sometimes, when psychological conflict threatens psychological functioning, the ego mobilizes an array of defense mechanisms to prevent psychological disintegration (Burgo, 2012). Some examples of defense mechanism  06 Dream analysis Analysing dream  The content of dream Freud believed the content of dreams could be broken down into two different types: The manifest content of a dream included all the actual content of the dream—the events, images, and thoughts contained within the dream. The manifest content is essentially what the dreamer remembers upon waking. The latent content, on the other hand, is all the hidden and symbolic meanings within the dream. Freud believed that dreams were essentially a form of wish fulfillment. By taking unconscious thoughts, feelings, and desires and transforming them into less threatening forms, people are able to reduce the ego's anxiety.  07 Criticism and application  Criticism Many of the hypotheses and assumptions of psychoanalytic theory cannot be tested empirically, making it almost impossible to falsify or validate. It emphasizes the deterministic roles of biology and the unconscious and neglects environmental influences on the conscious mind. Psychoanalytic theory was deeply rooted in Freud’s sexist ideas, and traces of this sexism still remain in the theory and practice today. Freud emphasized pathology and neglected to study optimal psychological functioning. The theory was not developed through the application of the scientific method, but from Freud’s subjective interpretations of a small group of patients from a specific cultural background and historical period (Eagle, 2007). Impact of freudian theory Psychotherapy -Freud's belief that mental problems could be resolved by actually 01 talking about them helped revolutionize psychotherapy.Freud's theories have also sparked a major change in how we view mental illness by suggesting that not all psychological problems have physiological causes. Science: Freud's contributions have also impacted the foundational science of what we know about psychology today. His idea that our thoughts are largely unconscious 02 has withstood scientific scrutiny, for instance, retaining their importance in understanding human development and behavior Culture Freud has even influenced thoughts about how society has formed into 03 what it is today. Some believe that his theories help explain some of the successes of modern society while also explaining some of its failures Thanks! Do you have any questions? [email protected] +91 9986948814 consultcarpediem.com CREDITS: This presentation template was created by Slidesgo, and includes icons by Flaticon, infographics & images by Freepik and content by Sandra Medina Please keep this slide for attribution Individual Psychology (Alfred Adler) Tanvi Auradkar Table of contents Alfred Adler & Individual Psychology 02 Personality typology 01 Techniques & stages Compensation, overcompensation & complex 03 03 04 Benefits and effectiveness 05 06 Critical evaluation  01 Alfred Adler & Individual Psychology  Alfred Adler Alfred Adler was an Austrian physician and psychiatrist who formed the school of thought known as individual psychology.Adler is known for many thoughts and theories within the field of psychology, but is best known for: Founding individual psychology His concept of the inferiority complex Being a founding member and president of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society (the latter in 1910) Alder was initially a colleague of Sigmund Freud and helped establish psychoanalysis. He looked at the individual as a whole, which is why he referred to his approach as individual psychology. Adler eventually split from Freud's psychoanalytic circle but went on to have a tremendous impact on the development of psychotherapy. He also had an important influence on many other great thinkers, including Abraham Maslow and Albert Ellis  Individual Psychology While Freud focused on only the internal processes — mainly sexual conflicts — that affect a person’s psychology, Adler was adamant that to fully understand a person, a psychologist must also consider other internal and external factors. This is why he named his school of psychology individual; the word is intended to evoke a meaning of indivisibility, derived from the Latin individuum  Basic postulates Alfred Adler’s Theory of Individual Psychology posits that individuals are motivated primarily by social interests and a striving for superiority or self-improvement. Childhood experiences, especially feelings of inferiority, drive this striving, but in a healthy individual, it manifests as a desire to contribute to the welfare of others. Maladaptive behaviors arise when this striving becomes self-centered or when inferiority feelings are overwhelming. Adler emphasized the uniqueness of the individual and the role of social connections in shaping behavior.  02 Personality typology  Theory of personality Adler's theory of personality contended that individuals are whole beings. Therefore, their personality is formed based on several key concepts, including: Social interest: a sense of community and one's attitude toward others Masculine protest: a desire to be "a real man," superior and perfect Lifestyle: a pattern of responses to situations Goal-directed and purposeful behavior: all behaviors are a result of our goals Feelings of inferiority: relying totally on others in early life causes us to feel inferior Striving for superiority: an attempt to overcome feelings of inferiority Fictional finalism: ideals with no basis in reality, thus cannot be tested or confirmed (i.e., "honesty is the best policy") Family constellation: one's family makeup and position within the family Birth order: the order in which we are born affects our familial relationships, interactions, and feelings of inferiority  Personality typology Adler did not approve of the concept of personality types; he believed this practice could lead to neglecting each individual’s uniqueness. However, he did recognize patterns that often formed in childhood and could be useful in treating patients who fit into them. He called these patterns styles of life. Adler (2013a) claimed that once a psychologist knows a person’s style of life, “it is possible to predict his future sometimes just on the basis of talking to him and having him answer questions”  Birth order The term birth order refers to the order in which the children of a family were born. Adler (2013b, pp. 150-155) believed that birth order had a significant and predictable impact on a child’s personality First-born First-born children have inherent advantages due to their parents recognizing them as “the larger, the stronger, the older.” This gives first-born children the traits of “a guardian of law and order.” These children have a high amount of personal power, and they value the concept of power with reverence.  Birth order Second-born Second-born children are constantly in the shadow of their older siblings. They are incessantly “striving for superiority under pressure,” driven by the existence of their older, more powerful sibling.If the second-born is encouraged and supported, he will be able to attain power as well, and he and the first-born will work together. Youngest Child Youngest children operate in a constant state of inferiority. They are constantly trying to prove themselves, due to their perceptions of inferiority relative to the rest of their family.According to Adler, there are two types of youngest children.The more successful type “excels every other member of the family, and becomes the family’s most capable member.”Another, more unfortunate type of youngest child does not excel because he lacks the necessary self-confidence. This child becomes evasive and avoidant towards the rest of the family.  Birth order Only Child Only children, according to Adler, are also an unfortunate case. Due to their being the sole object of their parent’s attention, the only child becomes “dependent to a high degree, constantly waits for someone to show him the way, and searches for support at all times.” They also come to see the world as a hostile place due to their parents’ constant vigilance.  03 Compensation, overcompensation and complex  Compensation for weakness According to Adler (2013b), all infants have a feeling of inferiority and inadequacy immediately as they begin to experience the world. These early experiences, such as the need to gain the parents’ attention, shape the child’s unconscious, fictive goals. They give the child a need to strive towards rectifying that inferiority — a need to compensate for weakness by developing other strengths. There are several outcomes that can occur in a child’s quest for compensation. First, if the child receives adequate nurturing and care, the child can accept his challenges, and learn that they can be overcome with hard work. Thus, the child develops “normally” and develops the “courage to be imperfect” (Lazarsfeld, 1966, pp. 163-165).  Overcompensation Sometimes, the process of compensation goes away. One way in which this happens is that the feelings of inferiority become too intense, and the child begins to feel as though he has no control over his surroundings. He will strive very strenuously for compensation, to the point that compensation is no longer satisfactory. This culminates in a state of overcompensation, where the child’s focus on meeting his goal is exaggerated and becomes pathological. For example, Adler (1917) uses the ancient Greek figure Demosthenes, who had a terrible stutter but ended up becoming the “greatest orator in Greece” (p. 22). Here, Demosthenes started off with inferiority due to his stutter, and overcompensated by not just overcoming his stutter, but taking up a profession that would normally be impossible for a stutterer.  Inferiority complex Overcompensation can lead to the development of an inferiority complex. This is a lack of self-esteem where the person cannot rectify his feelings of inferiority. According to Adler (2013a), the hallmark of an inferiority complex is that “persons are always striving to find a situation in which they excel” (p. 74). This drive is due to their overwhelming feelings of inferiority. There are two components of these feelings of inferiority: primary and secondary. Primary inferiority is the “original and normal feeling” of inferiority an infant maintains (Stein & Edwards, 2002, p. 23). This feeling is productive, as it motivates the child to develop. Secondary inferiority, on the other hand, is the inferiority feeling in the adult results when the child develops an exaggerated feeling of inferiority (p. 23). These feelings in the adult are what is harmful, and they comprise the inferiority complex..  Superiority complex The superiority complex occurs when a person has the need to prove that he is more superior than he truly is. Adler (2013a) provides an example of a child with a superiority complex, who is “impertinent, arrogant and pugnacious” (p. 82). When this child is treated through Adlerian therapy, it is revealed that the child behaves impatiently because he feels inferior. Adler (2013a) claims that superiority complexes are born out of inferiority complexes; they are “one of the ways which a person with an inferiority complex may use a method of escape from his difficulties” (p. 97).  04 Techniques and stages  Basic approach Adlerian therapy is positive, humanistic, and integrative that can be adapted for the specific needs of the individual. One of the key concepts of Adlerian theory is that human behavior is goal-oriented. People who are experiencing problems work with a therapist to gain insights into their problems and behaviors. Once they have developed a deeper understanding of themselves, people can then work on learning new skills and behaviors that will help them overcome these problems.  Techniques of therapy Providing encouragement: Therapists show that they care for clients by listening and showing empathy. This also involves helping people learn how to recognize their own strengths and gain confidence in their ability to succeed. Creating expectations: Therapists may ask people to consider how they would act if they were already the person that they strive to be. This allows the client to visualize success, overcome resistance to change, and establish the expectation that the individual will succeed. Examining the purpose for behavior: As people explore their behaviors, a therapist might ask the client to reflect on the purpose of these behaviors. Often, understanding the purpose that some of these maladaptive behaviors serve can help people develop healthier coping strategies. Examining memories: Looking at past moments can serve as a way to gain insight into past patterns of behavior that might contribute to current problems. After exploring several memories, therapists can look for certain themes that may emerge.  Stages of therapy Engagement This stage focuses on establishing a therapeutic alliance between the therapist and the individual in therapy. A therapeutic alliance is a cooperative, collaborative relationship between a therapist and a client. This involves the ability to get along, communicate, share, and work together. Assessment At this stage, the therapist works to learn more about the individual in therapy. This includes taking a history, learning about past experiences, and using psychological assessments. This often includes exploring early memories, talking about family dynamics, and looking at how the individual thinks about these events. To learn more about these goals, Adlerian therapists may administer assessments as a way of determining what goals a person is trying to achieve and how they normally go about reaching them  The Stages Insight This stage focuses on helping the individual learn more about their situation and gain insight into their own behavior. A therapist might offer interpretations of events and suggest that certain patterns may exist. While a therapist might make observations, it is essential for the person in treatment to gain a sense of personal insight into their own beliefs and behaviors. Reorientation Now that the individual has acquired new insights, the therapist works with them to develop new habits, behaviors, and skills that will support their growth going forward. This process may involve strategies such as reframing old experiences while also developing new patterns.  05 Benefits & evaluation Benefits People often find treatments based on Adlerian theory helpful because it emphasizes the importance of community involvement and social interactions in order to promote individual growth. Because it is a holistic approach, people are able to gain a greater awareness of different aspects of themselves as well as a greater understanding of how they fit in within their social world. Another benefit of the Adlerian approach is that it avoids pathologizing people. Instead, it emphasizes how people can experience difficulties and discouragement during life, which then contributes to psychological problems Effectiveness Studies have also supported Adler's belief in the importance of the therapeutic relationship. The therapeutic alliance has been shown to affect treatment outcomes across a range of conditions, therapeutic modalities, and contexts. 6 One study found that an Adlerian group counseling intervention was helpful for improving feelings of authenticity among university students.7 Research also suggests that there is neurobiological support for some of Adler's key ideas.8 For example, one study found that eudemonia, or happiness rooted in meaningfulness, is linked to decreased inflammation and healthier genetic expression. In other words, a greater sense of social connectedness rooted in caring for others, connecting with the community, and finding a sense of purpose is linked to improved mental health and well-being  06 Critical evaluation  Evaluation ? As with all psychodynamic approaches to human psychology, Adlerian individual psychology receives criticism for being unscientific and difficult to prove empirically. Specifically, its focus on the unconscious fictive goal makes it arguable that Adlerian psychology is unfalsifiable. Though Adler’s theories are difficult to definitively prove, recent neuroscience has provided some support. A recent study summarizing modern neuroscientific evidence, and how it relates to Adlerian psychology, agreed with a statement made by Maslow in 1970 In regards to Adlerian therapy, the modern-day attitude is that while the practice is simple and easy for the layman to understand, it is flawed because it is not empirically based. Adler’s form of counseling is criticized for its lack of depth, notably, its lack of a foundation that deals with issues not related to concepts such as birth order and early recollections (Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2016, p. 142) Freud & Adler Aspect Freud Adler Motivation of Behavior Internal biological drives (sex Social influence and striving for and aggression) superiority Choice in Personality People have no choice People are responsible for who Development they are Behavior Influence Present behavior is caused by Present behavior is shaped by the the past (e.g. childhood) future (goals orientation) Conscious Awareness Emphasis on unconscious People are aware of what they are processes doing and why Personality Structure Split into components (id, Studied as a whole (holism) ego, superego) Primary Relationships Relationship with same-sex Wider family relationships parent including with siblings Thanks! Do you have any questions? [email protected] +91 9545418021 consultcarpediem.com CREDITS: This presentation template was created by Slidesgo, and includes icons by Flaticon, infographics & images by Freepik and content by Sandra Medina Please keep this slide for attribution Analytical Psychology (Carl Jung) - Tanvi Auradkar Practicing Psychologist Founding Partner Carpediem EdPsych Consultancy LLP Table of contents Jung’s model of Psyche Personal & collective uncon 01 02 Psychological types 03 Jungian archetypes 03 04 Individuation Theory of libido 05 06 Freud Vs Jung 07  01 Jung’s model of psyche  Carl Gustav Jung Carl Gustav Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology. Jung's work has been influential in the fields of psychiatry, anthropology, archaeology, literature, philosophy, psychology, and religious studies Carl Jung’s personality theory focuses on the interplay between the conscious and unconscious mind, universal archetypes, the process of individuation, and psychological types. The theory emphasizes the integration of various aspects of personality to achieve self-realization and encompasses universal and individual dynamics.  Model of Psyche Jung regarded the psyche as made up of a number of separate but interacting systems. The three main ones were the ego, the personal unconscious, and the collective unconscious. 1. The ego represents the conscious mind as it comprises the thoughts, memories, and emotions a person is aware of. The ego is largely responsible for feelings of identity and continuity. Jung (1921, 1933) emphasized the importance of the unconscious in relation to personality. However, he proposed that the unconscious consists of two layers. The first layer called the personal unconscious - contains temporality forgotten information and well as repressed memories. The collective unconscious - refers to shared, inherited unconscious knowledge and experiences across generations  02 Personal & collective unconscious  Views on personal and collective unconscious “Everything of which I know, but of which I am not at the moment thinking; everything of which I was once conscious but have now forgotten; everything perceived by my senses, but not noted by my conscious mind; everything which, involuntarily and without paying attention to it, I feel, think, remember, want, and do; all the future things which are taking shape in me and will sometime come to consciousness; all this is the content of the unconscious” (Jung, 1921).  Personal unconscious The information and experiences of an individual’s lifetime that have been forgotten or repressed but continue to influence their behavior and attitudes on an unconscious level. What it contains? Memories, perceptions, and thoughts that may not be consciously accessible but can potentially become conscious. It also includes complex combinations of such contents, which Jung referred to as “complexes”. The contents of the personal unconscious are not always negative. They can also be positive or neutral aspects of experience that have simply fallen out of conscious awareness.  The relevance These are emotionally charged associations or ideas that have a powerful influence over an individual’s behavior and attitudes. For instance, a person might have a fear of dogs due to a forgotten childhood incident. This fear, while not consciously remembered, is stored in the personal unconscious and could cause an irrational response whenever the person encounters dogs.  Collective unconscious The collective unconscious, a concept by Carl Jung, refers to shared, inherited unconscious knowledge and experiences across generations, expressed through universal symbols and archetypes common to all human cultures. What it contains? Pre-existent forms, or archetypes, which can surface in consciousness in the form of dreams, visions, or feelings, and are expressed in our culture, art, religion, and symbolic experiences. Archetypes are universal symbols and themes that are shared across all human cultures. Some examples of these archetypes include the Mother, the Hero, the Child, the Wise old man, the Trickster, and so on. Each archetype represents common aspects of human experience.The collective unconscious is a universal version of the personal unconscious, holding mental patterns, or memory traces, which are shared with other members of the human species  Collective unconscious According to Jung, the human mind has innate characteristics “imprinted” on it as a result of evolution. These universal predispositions stem from our ancestral past. Fear of the dark, or of snakes and spiders might be examples, and it is interesting that this idea has recently been revived in the theory of prepared conditioning (Seligman, 1971). However, more important than isolated tendencies are those aspects of the collective unconscious that have developed into separate subsystems of the personality. Jung (1947) called these ancestral memories and images archetypes.  03 The Archetypes  Archetypes Jungian archetypes are defined as images and themes that derive from the collective unconscious, as proposed by Carl Jung. Archetypes have universal meanings across cultures and may show up in dreams, literature, art, or religion. Jung (1947) believes symbols from different cultures are often very similar because they have emerged from archetypes shared by the whole human race which are part of our collective unconscious. For Jung, our primitive past becomes the basis of the human psyche, directing and influencing present behavior. Jung claimed to identify a large number of archetypes but paid special attention to four.  Persona The persona (or mask) is the outward face we present to the world. It conceals our real self and Jung describes it as the “conformity” archetype. This is the public face or role a person presents to others as someone different from who we really are (like an actor). The Persona is the aspect of our personality that we present to the world as a means of social adaptation and personal convenience. A well-adapted Persona can greatly contribute to our social success, as it mirrors our true personality traits and adapts to different social contexts. The Persona is shaped during childhood, driven by the need to conform to the expectations of parents, teachers, and peers. This usually results in the Persona encompassing the more socially acceptable traits  Anima/Animus The “anima/animus” is the mirror image of our biological sex, that is, the unconscious feminine side in males and the masculine tendencies in women. Each sex manifests the attitudes and behavior of the other by virtue of centuries of living together. For men, there exists an Anima (a feminine inner personality), and for women, an Animus (a masculine inner personality). These archetypes are derived both from collective ideas of femininity and masculinity and from individual experiences with the opposite sex, beginning with the person’s parents. The Anima and Animus are often first encountered through projection  Anima/Animus Jung acknowledged that so-called “masculine” traits (like autonomy, separateness, and aggression) and “feminine” traits (like nurturance, relatedness, and empathy) were not confined to one gender or superior to the other. Instead, he saw them as parts of a holistic psychological spectrum present in every individual.  The Shadow The Shadow archetype encapsulates the parts of ourselves that we may reject, disown, or simply don’t recognize. Rooted in both our personal and collective unconscious, the Shadow contains traits that we consciously oppose, often contrasting those presented in our Persona – the outward ‘mask’ we show to the world. This is the animal side of our personality It is the source of both our creative and destructive energies. The Shadow isn’t merely negative; it provides depth and balance to our personality, reflecting the principle that every aspect of one’s personality has a compensatory counterpart.  The shadow This is symbolized in the idea: “where there is light, there must also be shadow”. Shadow elements often manifest when we project disliked traits onto others, serving as mirrors to our disowned aspects. Engaging with our Shadow can be challenging, but it’s crucial for a balanced personality.  The self The self which provides a sense of unity in experience. For Jung, the ultimate aim of every individual is to achieve a state of selfhood (similar to self-actualization), and in this respect, Jung (like Erikson) is moving in the direction of a more humanistic orientation.  04 Psychological types  Psychological types People experience the world using four principal psychological functions – sensation, intuition, feeling, and thinking – and that one of these four functions is dominant for a person most of the time. Each of these cognitive functions can be expressed primarily in an introverted or extroverted form. The dichotomies Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F): This dichotomy is about how people make decisions. ‘Thinking’ individuals make decisions based on logic and objective considerations, while ‘Feeling’ individuals make decisions based on subjective and personal values. Sensing (S) vs. Intuition (N): This dichotomy concerns how people perceive or gather information. ‘Sensing’ individuals focus on present realities, tangible facts, and details. They are practical and literal thinkers. ‘Intuitive’ individuals focus on possibilities, interconnections, and future potential. They are often abstract and theoretical thinkers. Extroversion (E) vs. Introversion (I): This pair concerns where people derive their energy from. Extroverts and Introverts Extroverts are oriented towards the outer world; they tend to be more outgoing and sociable, deriving energy from interaction with others and the external environment. Introverts are oriented towards the inner world; they tend to be quiet and reserved, deriving energy from reflection, inner feelings, ideas, and experiences. Everyone has a ‘dominant’ function that tends to predominate in their personality and behavior, along with an ‘auxiliary’ function that serves to support and balance the dominant. The application The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a personality inventory based on these ideas of Jung. The MBTI uses a questionnaire to measure psychological preferences in how people perceive the world and make decisions  05 Individuation What is individuation? Jung proposed that the goal of a person’s psychological development is individuation – a process of becoming aware of oneself, integrating different aspects of personality, and realizing our inherent potential. It involves integrating the conscious and unconscious parts of our mind and reconciling our many inner contradictions. In the process of individuation, the individual strives to integrate various aspects of their psyche. This includes reconciling and integrating opposites within the self, such as the conscious and unconscious mind, as well as different aspects of the personality, such as the persona (the mask or role we present to the world) and the shadow (the unconscious, less desirable aspects of ourselves). The process of individuation In practical terms, the process of individuation might involve self-reflection, dream analysis, exploration of personal symbols and themes, and conscious engagement with the unconscious parts of the self. It is often a transformative journey that can involve significant psychological changes and growth. However, individuation is not about achieving some form of perfection. Instead, it is about recognizing, acknowledging, and integrating different aspects of the self. This includes embracing the paradoxes and complexities of human nature and developing an understanding and acceptance of oneself, warts and all.  06 The theory of the libido Libido Jung saw the libido not merely as sexual energy, but as a generalized life force or psychic energy. According to his theory, this energy is not only the driver behind our sexual desires but also fuels our spiritual, intellectual, and creative pursuits. It encapsulates the totality of the energy of life, incorporating all our drives and motivations.  The functions of libido The libido is an important component of individuation, which is the process of integrating the conscious with the unconscious, while still maintaining one’s individuality. The overall psychological development and mental health of an individual, and the libido, as the motivating psychic energy, plays a central role in it. This energy is directed towards areas of conflict to facilitate growth, development, and adaptation, reducing internal tension and dissatisfaction. This psychic energy or libido also drives us towards seeking pleasure and fulfillment, which are integral to our self-realization and growth. This can be seen in our desires for creativity, intellectual stimulation, and spiritual experiences, among others.  07 Freud Vs Jung Freud Vs Jung  Critical evaluation Jung’s (1947, 1948) ideas have not been as popular as Freud’s. This might be because he did not write for the layman and as such his ideas were not a greatly disseminated as Freud’s. It may also be because his ideas were a little more mystical and obscure, and less clearly explained. On the whole modern psychology has not viewed Jung’s theory of archetypes kindly Jung’s research into ancient myths and legends, his interest in astrology, and his fascination with Eastern religion can be seen in that light, it is also worth remembering that the images he was writing about have, as a matter of historical fact, exerted an enduring hold on the human mind. Jung proposed that human responses to archetypes are similar to instinctual responses in animals. One criticism of Jung is that there is no evidence that archetypes are biologically based or similar to animal instincts (Roesler, 2012). Jung’s work has also contributed to mainstream psychology in at least one significant respect. He was the first to distinguish the two major attitudes or orientations of personality – extraversion and introversion (Jung, 1923). Thanks! Do you have any questions? [email protected] +91 9545418021 consultcarpediem.com CREDITS: This presentation template was created by Slidesgo, and includes icons by Flaticon, infographics & images by Freepik and content by Sandra Medina Please keep this slide for attribution Neurotic needs and trends (Karen Horney) Tanvi Auradkar Table of contents Theory of neurotic needs Karen Horney 02 01 Neurotic needs affect 10 neurotic needs behaviour 03 04 Coping with neurosis Critical evaluation 05 0605  01 Karen Horney  Karen Horney Karen Horney was born in Germany in 1885 and was granted a medical degree from the University of Berlin in 1911. After practicing medicine for a few years, Horney became fascinated by the emerging field of psychoanalysis and studied under the guidance of Karl Abraham, a personal associate and supporter of Sigmund Freud and his theories. After researching psychoanalytic theory with Abraham, Horney conducted psychiatric work within Berlin hospitals before moving to the United States to become the assistant director of the Institute for Psychoanalysis (Vena, 2015). Horney then relocated to New York City to build a private psychoanalytic practice as well as to teach for the New School for Social Research. There, she composed two major works: The Neurotic Personality of Our Time and New Ways in Psychoanalysis.  02 Theory of neurotic needs  The concept of neuroticism Neurosis is an inability to adapt and a tendency to experience excessive negative or obsessive thoughts and behaviors. The term has been in use since the 1700s. In 1980, the diagnosis was removed from the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders." While no longer a formal diagnosis, the term is still often used informally to describe behaviors related to stress and anxiety Karen Horney was a psychoanalyst and theorist who suggested that people possess a number of neurotic needs that play a role in driving behavior.  Horney’s conceptualisation According to Horney neurosis resulted from basic anxiety caused by interpersonal relationships To Horney, basic anxiety (and therefore neurosis) could result from a variety of situations. She suggested that as children, people often have experiences that contribute to neuroticism, including: Excessive admiration Injustice and discrimination Isolation from other children Lack of respect for needs Lack of guidance Lack of warmth Over-protection Parental arguments or hostility in the home Too much or too little responsibility Unkept promises  Types of neurotic needs Needs that move people toward others: These neurotic needs cause individuals to seek affirmation and acceptance from others. People with these needs are often described as needy or clingy as they seek out approval and love. Needs that move people away from others: These neurotic needs create hostility and antisocial behavior. These individuals are often described as cold, indifferent, and aloof. Needs that move people against others: These neurotic needs result in hostility and a need to control other people. These individuals are often described as difficult, domineering, and unkind. Neurotic people tend to use two or more of these ways of coping, which then creates conflict, turmoil, and confusion.  Theory of personality The three broad categories of neurotic needs essentially describe the various ways that people can cope with their social experiences. Horney believed that these coping strategies could affect a person's personality and came up with three types of personalities Aggressive: Assumes that everyone is the enemy and only looks out for themselves Compliant: Sensitive to the needs of others and spontaneously works to meet others' expectations Detached: Seeks to become self-sufficient, creating emotional distance from others to the point of alienation  Overuse of interpersonal styles Well-adjusted individuals use all three coping strategies (toward, away, and against others), shifting focus depending on internal and external factors. So what is it that makes these coping strategies neurotic? According to Horney, it is the overuse of one or more of these interpersonal styles.  03 10 neurotic needs  The Need for Affection and Approval Horney labeled the first need as the neurotic need for affection and approval. This need includes the desire to be liked, to please other people, and meet the expectations of others. People with this type of need are extremely sensitive to rejection and criticism and fear the anger or hostility of others.  The Need for a partner The second need is known as the neurotic need for a partner who will take over one's life. This involves the need to be centered on a partner. People with this need have an extreme fear of being abandoned by their partner. Oftentimes, these individuals place an exaggerated importance on love and believe that having a partner will resolve all of life’s troubles.  Need to restrict one’s life The third need centers on the neurotic need to restrict one's life within narrow borders. Individuals with this need prefer to remain inconspicuous and unnoticed. They are undemanding and content with little. They avoid wishing for material things, often making their own needs secondary and undervaluing their own talents and abilities.  The need for power The fourth need Horney described is known as a neurotic need for power. Individuals with this need seek power for its own sake. They usually praise strength, despise weakness, and will exploit or dominate other people. These people fear personal limitations, helplessness, and uncontrollable situations.  The need to exploit others People with a neurotic need to exploit others view others in terms of what can be gained through association with them. People with this need generally pride themselves on their ability to exploit other people and are often focused on manipulating others to obtain desired objectives, including such things as ideas, power, money, or sex.  The need for prestige Individuals with a need for prestige value themselves in terms of public recognition and acclaim. Material possessions, personality characteristics, professional accomplishments, and loved ones are evaluated based on prestige value. These individuals often fear public embarrassment and loss of social status.  The need for personal admiration Individuals with a neurotic need for personal admiration are narcissistic and have an exaggerated self-perception. They want to be admired based on this imagined self-view, not upon how they really are.  The need for personal achievement ? According to Horney, people push themselves to achieve greater and greater things as a result of basic insecurity. These individuals fear failure and feel a constant need to accomplish more than other people and to top even their own earlier successes.  The need for independence This need is described as a neurotic need for self-sufficiency and independence. These individuals exhibit a “loner” mentality, distancing themselves from others in order to avoid being tied down or dependent on other people.  The need for perfection People with a neurotic need for perfection and unassailability strive for complete infallibility. A common feature of this neurotic need is searching for personal flaws in order to quickly change or cover up these perceived imperfections..  04 The neurotic needs affect behaviour  Neurotic need and behaviour Neurotic needs can lead to different types of behavior depending on the individual, their needs, and the situation. For example: Sometimes neurotic needs can lead to behavior that is aggressive or antisocial. People with neurotic needs for power, prestige, or achievement may engage in behaviors that can be aggressive or exploitative. At other times, neurotic needs may cause people to withdraw. Those with a need for independence, for example, might turn away from others as a way to feel more self-sufficient. In other cases, neurotic needs cause people to behave in ways that are compliant. For example, people who crave approval or affection may engage in people-pleasing behaviors to ensure that others like them.  What does research say? Research suggests that people who are high in neuroticism tend to be more prone to negative emotions. This can contribute to a higher risk for feelings of anxiety, self-consciousness, anger, irritability, depression, and emotional instability. Neuroticism has been associated with physical health issues, including lower immunity, heart problems, and an increased risk of death. It is also linked to lower marital satisfaction, increased worry, work-related problems, and overall lower quality of life  05 Coping with neurosis  Techniques to cope Notice the Effects of Neurotic Needs Neurotic needs can lead to feelings of stress, rumination, and internalization. Spend some time thinking about how your life might be affected by these tendencies. Reframe Your Thinking When you find yourself feeling negative about a situation or engaging in unhelpful behaviors, try to step back and reassess how you think about the situation. Purposely challenging your negative thoughts can be helpful for creating a more positive perspective and mindset. Talk to a Professional A therapist can help you better understand neuroticism and how it affects your behavior. They can also help you identify and change negative thinking patterns and develop other coping skills that will help you better tolerate distress and anxiety.  The sources of depression Practice Mindfulness Mindfulness is a practice that involves focusing on the present moment. As you practice mindfulness, you become more aware of how you are feeling and what you are thinking. While you observe these feelings, you focus on simply being aware of them without judging them or acting upon them. Focus on Relationships Social support is important for mental well-being and can be helpful when you are dealing with difficult emotions. Spend time working on strengthening your relationships, but be aware of how neurotic needs such as the need for affection, approval, power, or other needs might affect your relationships.  06 Critical evaluation  Critique Horney took on views regarding the psychoanalytic theory that proved controversial for their non-adherence to the classical Freudian school of thought. As a result, she was barred from the New York Psychoanalytic Institute in 1941. Horney believed that many aspects of personality and neuroses were determined by environmental and social contexts rather than a person’s inborn, biological drives.Horney’s beliefs on neurotic behavior challenged the notion that neurotic tendencies were a result of one’s environment and not an intrinsic manifestation of who someone was Horney also diverged drastically from Freud’s theories on female psychology, challenging the idea that female mental issues are a product of the male-dominated world. She created concepts of female psychology that those who study deviance can use to understand why crime is committed by women(Vena, 2015). In its initial stages, the field of psychoanalysis was a largely male-dominated school that focused on the human psyche and the underlying emotional disturbances that influenced it. Contribution Horney’s work influenced several branches of psychology. Maslow, for instance, credited her with founding humanistic psychology, influencing him in his creation of the Hierarchy of Needs (Vanacore, 2020). Horney’s term “basic anxiety” influenced Erik Erikson’s idea of ” basic mistrust,” which became his first stage of psychosocial development. Horney’s theories on neurosis also helped to inspire the interpersonal school of psychology and the diagnosis of neurotic disorders in psychiatry. Thanks! Do you have any questions? [email protected] +91 9545418021 consultcarpediem.com CREDITS: This presentation template was created by Slidesgo, and includes icons by Flaticon, infographics & images by Freepik and content by Sandra Medina Please keep this slide for attribution Individual Psychology (Erik Erickson)  01 Erik Erickson & Individual Psychology  Erik Erickson Erik Erikson was a German-American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst best known for formulating the theory of psychosocial development. His contributions to psychology include: Expanding Freud's psychosexual stages into a lifespan approach through his eight stages of psychosocial development. Introducing the concept of an identity crisis, a central theme in understanding adolescence and young adulthood. Emphasizing the role of culture, society, and interpersonal relationships in shaping development.  Individual Psychology Erikson's approach combines psychological and social aspects of human growth, addressing the broader context of an individual's life. While his theory is rooted in psychoanalysis, it moves beyond Freud’s emphasis on internal drives by incorporating the influence of social and cultural factors.  02 Psychosocial Development  Psychosocial Development Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development posits that individuals must navigate eight distinct stages, each characterized by a unique conflict: Trust vs. Mistrust (0–1 year): Developing a sense of security and trust in caregivers and the environment. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1–3 years): Establishing independence while balancing feelings of doubt. Initiative vs. Guilt (3–6 years): Exploring new activities and taking initiative without guilt over mistakes.  Psychosocial Development Industry vs. Inferiority (6–12 years): Developing competence and skills through social and academic achievements. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12–18 years): Forming a personal identity and sense of self amidst peer and societal expectations. Intimacy vs. Isolation (20–40 years): Building deep, meaningful relationships and avoiding loneliness. Generativity vs. Stagnation (40–65 years): Contributing to society and future generations through work, family, or community involvement. Integrity vs. Despair (65+ years): Reflecting on life with a sense of fulfillment or regret.  03 Key Concepts of Erikson’s Theory Identity Crisis and Psychosocial Development  Identity Crisis and Psychosocial Development Erikson introduced the concept of the identity crisis, a pivotal challenge particularly during adolescence. This term refers to the exploration and struggle individuals undergo to establish a clear and cohesive sense of self. Key concepts in Erikson's theory include: Psychosocial Conflict: Each stage is marked by a specific conflict or challenge that must be resolved for healthy development. Basic Virtues: Successfully resolving conflicts leads to the development of basic virtues, which act as strengths to navigate subsequent stages of life.  Identity Crisis and Psychosocial Development Social and Cultural Influence: Erikson emphasized the importance of societal roles, cultural norms, and interpersonal relationships in shaping personality development. Epigenetic Principle: His theory is based on the idea that development unfolds in predetermined stages, where earlier stages lay the foundation for later ones. Erikson's framework integrates the psychological and social dimensions of human growth, highlighting the influence of external factors in personal development.  04 Psychosocial Stages in Detail  Psychosocial Stages in Detail Trust vs. Mistrust (0–1 year) This initial stage focuses on developing trust in caregivers and the environment. A nurturing, consistent caregiver fosters a sense of security and trust. Neglect or inconsistency leads to mistrust, fear, and suspicion of the world. Virtue: Hope – the belief that the world is reliable and supportive. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1–3 years) This stage emphasizes independence and self-control. Encouragement of exploration and self-reliance builds autonomy. Over-criticism or control results in feelings of shame and doubt. Virtue: Will – the determination to make choices independently.  Psychosocial Stages in Detail Initiative vs. Guilt (3–6 years) Children begin to assert control and take initiative in their activities. Support for creativity and decision-making fosters initiative. Overpunishment or discouragement may result in guilt or hesitation. Virtue: Purpose – the ability to set and achieve goals. Industry vs. Inferiority (6–12 years) This stage focuses on competence in social and academic skills. Positive reinforcement builds self-confidence and industry. Criticism or failure fosters feelings of inferiority. Virtue: Competence – the ability to work and achieve success.  Psychosocial Stages in Detail Identity vs. Role Confusion (12–18 years) Adolescents explore personal identity and societal roles. Success leads to a strong sense of self and direction. Failure results in confusion and uncertainty about one's purpose. Virtue: Fidelity – staying true to oneself and one’s beliefs. Intimacy vs. Isolation (20–40 years) Young adults seek deep, meaningful relationships. Strong relationships foster intimacy and emotional connection. Avoidance or fear of commitment leads to isolation and loneliness. Virtue: Love – the ability to form lasting bonds with others.  Psychosocial Stages in Detail Generativity vs. Stagnation (40–65 years) Middle adulthood involves contributing to future generations through work, family, or community. Success in this stage results in a sense of purpose and contribution. Failure leads to self-absorption and stagnation. Virtue: Care – nurturing others and fostering growth. Integrity vs. Despair (65+ years) This final stage focuses on reflecting on life’s accomplishments. Acceptance of life leads to a sense of integrity and wisdom. Regret or bitterness results in despair. Virtue: Wisdom – an understanding and acceptance of life’s meaning.  05 Benefits & evaluation Benefits Comprehensive: Covers the entire lifespan, integrating psychological, social, and cultural factors. Practical Applications: Offers insights into education, counseling, and parenting. Positive Outlook: Focuses on growth, resilience, and the development of strengths. Criticisms: Lack of Empirical Evidence: The theory is difficult to test scientifically. Cultural Bias: Some stages may not apply universally across all cultures. Overemphasis on Stages: Life development may not occur as neatly or sequentially as Erikson proposed. Thanks! CREDITS: This presentation template was created by Slidesgo, and includes icons by Flaticon, infographics & images by Freepik and content by Sandra Medina Please keep this slide for attribution Psychoanalytic Theory Henry Murray  01 Psychoanalytic Theory Henry Murray  Henry Murray Henry Alexander Murray was an American psychologist whose work built upon and expanded psychoanalytic ideas. Though not strictly Freudian, his theories integrated psychoanalytic concepts with a broader view of human behavior and motivation. Murray’s key contributions include: Developing the theory of personology, which highlights the study of personality through life histories. Introducing the concept of needs and motives, influenced by Freudian instincts but broader in scope. Co-creating the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), a projective tool for exploring unconscious processes. Murray’s work combined psychoanalysis, biology, and sociology, bridging traditional psychoanalytic ideas with modern personality psychology.  Personology and Psychoanalysis A Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality Murray’s theory of personology shares roots with psychoanalytic thought by emphasizing unconscious motives and the dynamic nature of personality. Key aspects include: Influence of the Unconscious: While influenced by Freud’s focus on unconscious drives, Murray expanded this to include both conscious and unconscious needs. Dynamic Systems: Personality is shaped by the interplay of internal drives (needs) and external forces (press). Life Narratives: Murray emphasized understanding personality through the study of life stories, echoing psychoanalytic case studies.  02 Needs and Press in Psychoanalysis  Needs and Press Murray’s theory incorporates Freudian ideas of drives but broadens them into psychogenic needs, which reflect psychological desires rather than purely biological instincts. Key elements include: Needs: Internal forces driving behavior, such as achievement, affiliation, dominance, or nurturance. These reflect the influence of unconscious desires, akin to Freud’s concept of instincts.  Needs and Press Press: Environmental factors that influence behavior. Similar to Freud’s external stimuli, but with a focus on subjective perceptions (Beta press) as well as objective reality (Alpha press). Thema: The combination of needs and press creates recurring patterns, akin to Freudian complexes. Murray’s approach redefines Freudian drives within a broader framework of motivation and adaptation.  03 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)  Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), co-developed by Murray and Christiana Morgan, reflects psychoanalytic principles by exploring the unconscious through storytelling. Concept: Participants create stories based on ambiguous images, revealing underlying motives, conflicts, and emotions. Purpose: Similar to Freudian free association, the TAT uncovers unconscious dynamics influencing behavior. Key Themes: Stories often highlight recurring motifs, similar to Freud’s concept of repressed desires and conflicts.  04 Psychogenic Needs in Psychoanalytic Context  Psychogenic Needs in Psychoanalytic Context Murray identified 20 psychogenic needs that reflect both conscious and unconscious desires, expanding on Freud’s instinct theory. Examples include: Achievement: Striving for excellence and success. Affiliation: Forming meaningful social bonds. Dominance: Asserting control and influence over others. Autonomy: Maintaining independence and freedom.  05 Benefits & evaluation Benefits Integrative Framework: Combines psychoanalytic principles with broader psychological concepts. Practical Tools: The TAT offers a valuable method for exploring unconscious motives. Holistic Perspective: Emphasizes individuality through life stories and personal histories. Criticisms: Subjectivity: Relies heavily on interpretative methods, like the TAT. Limited Empirical Support: Like Freud’s theories, Murray’s ideas are challenging to validate scientifically. Overemphasis on the Unconscious: Critics argue for greater focus on conscious processes and external factors. Thanks! CREDITS: This presentation template was created by Slidesgo, and includes icons by Flaticon, infographics & images by Freepik and content by Sandra Medina Please keep this slide for attribution