Key Terms and Concepts for Midterm - Theology Study PDF

Key Terms and Concepts for Midterm 1. The Four Senses of Scripture In Christian biblical interpretation, Scripture is understood in four senses: 1.​ Literal Sense: ○​ The direct meaning of the text, including historical events and facts. ○​ Example: In Genesis, “God created...

Key Terms and Concepts for Midterm 1. The Four Senses of Scripture In Christian biblical interpretation, Scripture is understood in four senses: 1.​ Literal Sense: ○​ The direct meaning of the text, including historical events and facts. ○​ Example: In Genesis, “God created the heavens and the earth” means that God literally brought the universe into existence. 2.​ Allegorical Sense (Typological): ○​ How events and figures in the Old Testament prefigure Christ and salvation history. ○​ Example: The sacrifice of Isaac (Genesis 22) is a “type” of Christ’s sacrifice. 3.​ Moral Sense (Tropological): ○​ How the text instructs human beings in moral conduct. ○​ Example: The Ten Commandments are not just historical but teach how to live righteously. 4.​ Anagogical Sense: ○​ How Scripture points to eternal realities (heaven, final judgment). ○​ Example: The Promised Land symbolizes heaven. Significance The four senses reflect the depth of Scripture and were particularly emphasized by medieval theologians like Aquinas. Augustine also engages in allegorical and moral interpretations in Confessions, especially regarding Genesis. 2. Privation Theory of Evil This theory, largely developed by Augustine, states: ​ Evil is not a substance or a created thing. ​ Instead, evil is the absence (privation) of good in something that should possess it. ​ Evil has no independent existence—it is a distortion or corruption of good. Example ​ Blindness is not a substance but the absence of sight in a creature that should see.  ​ Moral evil (sin) is the lack of proper order in the human will—choosing lower goods over higher ones. Connection to Augustine ​ In Confessions, Augustine rejects Manichean dualism (which sees evil as a substance opposed to good). ​ Instead, he argues that all creation is good because it comes from God—evil is merely a corruption of good, not an opposing force. 3. Manichean Theory of Evil ​ Manichaeism (a religious sect that influenced young Augustine) holds a dualistic view of the cosmos: ○​ Two eternal forces: Good (Light) and Evil (Darkness). ○​ Evil is a substance that exists independently, equal to good. Key Manichean Beliefs ​ The world is a battleground between light (spiritual, good) and darkness (material, evil). ​ The human soul is divine light trapped in the evil material body. ​ Salvation comes through gnosis (special knowledge) that frees the soul. Augustine’s Rejection ​ Initially drawn to Manichaeism, Augustine abandons it when he realizes: ○​ Evil cannot be an independent substance (privation theory). ○​ Material reality is not inherently evil—God created it good. ○​ Faustus, the Manichean bishop, fails to answer Augustine’s questions logically. 4. Eudaimonism ​ A philosophical concept from Greek ethics (Plato, Aristotle), meaning “human flourishing” or “the highest good”. ​ It holds that happiness (eudaimonia) is the ultimate goal of human life. ​ True happiness comes not just from pleasure, but from virtue and fulfilling one’s nature. Augustine’s Christian Eudaimonism ​ Augustine modifies this idea: True happiness is found only in God. ​ Before his conversion, he pursued happiness through worldly things (pleasure, ambition, philosophy) but remained restless. ​ His famous quote:​ “Our hearts are restless until they rest in You, O Lord.” ​ Key contrast: ○​ Classical eudaimonism → Human happiness comes from virtue. ○​ Augustine’s eudaimonism → True happiness is union with God. 5. The Four Causes (Aristotle’s Causal Framework) These explain why things exist or change: 1.​ Material Cause – What something is made of. ○​ Example: A statue’s material cause is marble. 2.​ Formal Cause – The shape, structure, or definition of a thing. ○​ Example: The design that makes a statue look like a person. 3.​ Efficient Cause – The agent that brings something into existence. ○​ Example: A sculptor who carves the statue. 4.​ Final Cause – The purpose or goal (telos). ○​ Example: The statue is made to honor someone. Connection to Creation ​ Aquinas applies Aristotle’s causes to God: ○​ God is the efficient cause of creation (He brings it into being). ○​ The final cause of creation is God’s glory and divine order. 6. Primary and Secondary Causes ​ Primary Cause (God) – The ultimate source of all reality and motion. ​ Secondary Causes (Natural/Created Causes) – The means through which God works in the world. Example: ​ God (Primary Cause) creates fire with the property to burn. ​ Fire (Secondary Cause) burns wood, but God ultimately sustains it. Connection to Providence ​ Medieval thinkers saw God as both transcendent and immanent—He causes events through secondary causes rather than constant direct intervention. 7. Analogy of Attribution ​ A concept in Aquinas’ theology about how human language applies to God. ​ We cannot describe God directly but use analogies based on creation. Example ​ Humans are good, but God is goodness itself. ​ God is not "good" in the same way a person is but is the source of all goodness. 8. Essence vs. Existence A fundamental distinction in Thomistic metaphysics: ​ Essence – What a thing is (its nature or definition). ○​ Example: A triangle’s essence is “a three-sided polygon.” ​ Existence – Whether a thing actually exists in reality. ○​ Example: A unicorn has an essence (a horse with a horn), but it does not exist. Aquinas’ Argument for God ​ In created things, essence ≠ existence (they need a cause to exist). ​ God is unique because in Him, essence and existence are identical—He is pure being (I AM WHO I AM). 9. Natural Evil vs. Moral Evil ​ Natural Evil – Suffering caused by nature (earthquakes, diseases). ​ Moral Evil – Evil caused by human free will (murder, lying). Augustine’s View  ​ Moral evil comes from disordered will, not God. ​ Natural evil can be part of God’s divine plan—serving a greater purpose. 10. Telos/Teleology ​ Telos (Greek: τέλος) means “end” or “goal”. ​ Teleology is the study of purpose in nature. In Aristotle ​ Everything has a goal or final cause (e.g., an acorn’s telos is to become an oak tree). In Christian Thought ​ The universe’s telos is God. ​ Human telos is union with God (beatific vision). Conclusion These concepts deeply influence Confessions and Creation. Privation theory, eudaimonism, and teleology are key to understanding Augustine’s thought, while four causes, primary/secondary causality, and analogy structure Aquinas' theology of creation. Major Themes from Confessions 1. Augustine’s Understanding of Good and Evil, Relationship to Creation/Cosmos, and Role of Human Sin A. Good and Evil Augustine’s transformation in thinking about evil: 1.​ Early Life (Manichaean Phase) – He believed in a dualistic struggle between Good (Light) and Evil (Darkness).  2.​ Platonist Phase (Book 7) – He begins to see evil as a corruption of good, not an independent force. 3.​ Christian Phase (Conversion & Beyond) – He fully adopts the privation theory of evil: ○​ Evil is not a substance but a lack of good (e.g., blindness is a lack of sight). ○​ Everything created by God is good by nature, but sin distorts this goodness. B. Relationship to Creation/Cosmos ​ Augustine reflects on Genesis and sees creation as an ordered, hierarchical system, with God as its ultimate source and sustainer. ​ Unlike the Manichaean belief that matter is evil, Augustine affirms that all creation is good, but it must be properly ordered under God. ​ Humans are unique in creation because they have free will, which allows them to turn away from God (sin). C. Role of Human Sin ​ Sin is disordered love (concupiscentia) – choosing lesser goods over God. ​ Examples of disordered love in Confessions: ○​ The Pear Theft (Book 2) → Sin for sin’s sake. ○​ Sexual Lust (Books 2-6) → Seeking bodily pleasure rather than divine fulfillment. ○​ Ambition and Pride (Books 3-6) → Loving status and fame instead of truth. ​ Only divine grace can reorder the will, leading to true peace (Book 8, his conversion). 2. The Pear Scene and Augustine’s Analysis in Book 2 The Story ​ As a teenager, Augustine and his friends steal pears from a tree, not out of hunger, but simply for the thrill. ​ He doesn’t even eat the pears—he throws them away. Augustine’s Reflection on the Nature of Sin 1.​ Sin for Sin’s Sake ○​ He realizes he wasn’t motivated by need or pleasure, but by the sheer joy of doing wrong. ○​ This contradicts traditional philosophical views that people always sin for some perceived good. 2.​ Imitation of God (in a twisted way)  ○​ He later realizes that all human desires reflect a longing for God, but in sin, this longing is distorted. ○​ His desire to break the law was a false attempt to claim divine freedom—to set his own rules. 3.​ Influence of Peer Pressure ○​ He confesses that he wouldn’t have done it alone—sin is often fueled by the desire for human approval. ○​ This foreshadows his later struggles with ambition and status in Rome. Theological Significance ​ The pear scene represents original sin—humanity’s tendency to turn away from God even without external temptation. ​ It prefigures his later realization that only God can change the human heart. 3. Augustine’s Conversion in Book 8 A. The Internal Struggle ​ In Milan, Augustine intellectually accepts Christianity but emotionally and spiritually struggles to surrender to God. ​ He fears giving up his ambition, career, and especially sexual desires. ​ He describes himself as having “two wills”: one for God, one for the world. B. The Turning Point 1.​ Story of Victorinus ○​ A famous Roman orator converts to Christianity, inspiring Augustine. ○​ Shows that highly intellectual people can also surrender to faith. 2.​ Encounter with Ponticianus ○​ A Christian visitor tells him about St. Antony of the Desert, a monk who gave up everything for God. ○​ This shocks Augustine—if simple monks can give up everything, why can’t he? 3.​ The Garden Scene ○​ Augustine retreats to a garden, overwhelmed by turmoil. ○​ He weeps bitterly, torn between his past sins and his longing for God. 4.​ The "Tolle, Lege" (Take and Read) Moment ○​ He suddenly hears a child’s voice singing “Take and read”. ○​ He opens the Bible to Romans 13:13-14:​ “Not in orgies and drunkenness, not in sexual immorality and sensuality, not in quarreling and jealousy. But put on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make no provision for the flesh.”  ○​ Instantly, he feels God’s grace and surrenders his will. C. Immediate Consequences ​ He decides to fully commit to Christianity and abandons his career and marriage plans. ​ He tells his mother Monica, who is overjoyed. Theological Importance ​ Conversion is not just intellectual but requires a surrender of the heart. ​ Grace, not human effort, ultimately changes the will. ​ The Bible plays a direct role in bringing Augustine to faith (emphasizing Scripture’s power). 4. Desire/Longing for God in Confessions A. The Core of Augustine’s Restlessness ​ The opening lines of Confessions define Augustine’s theme of longing:​ “You have made us for Yourself, O Lord, and our heart is restless until it rests in You.” ​ All human desires ultimately point toward God, but they can be misdirected toward lesser things. B. Augustine’s Misguided Attempts to Satisfy His Longing 1.​ Pleasure (Book 2-4) – Pursues lust, entertainment, and ambition. 2.​ Philosophy (Book 3-7) – Searches for truth in Cicero, the Manicheans, and the Platonists. 3.​ Power and Prestige (Book 6-7) – Obsessed with a successful career in rhetoric. C. The True Fulfillment ​ Only in his conversion (Book 8) does he find rest, because he surrenders to God’s grace. ​ Desire is not bad, but it must be rightly ordered toward God. 5. True Friendship According to Augustine A. Friendship Before Conversion ​ Augustine sees friendship as a powerful but dangerous force. ​ He recounts the death of a close friend (Book 4), which devastates him because he had placed all his happiness in human relationships rather than God. ​ Example: The Pear Theft—peer pressure leads him to sin. B. True Christian Friendship ​ After his conversion, Augustine redefines friendship: ○​ True friends lead each other toward God, not sin. ○​ Christian friendship is centered on shared love for Christ. ​ Monica, Alypius, and Ambrose represent true friendship—guiding Augustine toward faith. 6. What Does Augustine Learn from the Platonists in Book 7? A. Key Platonic Teachings That Influence Him 1.​ The Idea of an Immaterial Reality – The Platonists help him see that God is not physical but a higher, immaterial being. 2.​ The Problem of Evil – Platonism teaches that evil is a lack of being, helping Augustine move away from Manichaean dualism. B. What Platonism Lacks 1.​ Grace and Christ – The Platonists teach about God, but they do not teach salvation through Christ. 2.​ The Incarnation – Christianity teaches that God became flesh, which Platonists reject. C. How This Leads to His Conversion ​ Platonism helps him move toward Christianity, but he ultimately realizes he needs Christ’s grace, not just philosophy. Conclusion Each of these themes ties into Augustine’s central argument: Only God can satisfy the restless human heart. His journey from sin, philosophy, and ambition to grace and surrender reflects the broader Christian narrative of redemption. Major Themes from Creation 1. Similarities and Differences Between Enuma Elish and Genesis 1-3 A. Background of Enuma Elish ​ An ancient Mesopotamian creation myth written in Akkadian (~12th century BCE). ​ Narrates the rise of Marduk, the storm god, who defeats the primordial chaos goddess Tiamat and creates the world from her body. ​ Establishes the Babylonian pantheon and justifies Marduk’s rule. B. Genesis 1-3: A Different Kind of Creation Story ​ Monotheistic – There is only one God, not a struggle between competing deities. ​ Order from chaos, but without violence – Unlike Marduk, Yahweh does not fight chaos but simply speaks creation into being. ​ Humanity’s Role: ○​ Enuma Elish: Humans are created as servants for the gods. ○​ Genesis: Humans are made in God's image and given dominion over creation. ​ Ethical implications: ○​ Genesis rejects the violent, polytheistic worldview of Enuma Elish. ○​ Instead, it presents a moral order, where creation is declared “good.” 2. Analogy, Including the Analogy of Being A. What is Analogy? ​ Analogy is the idea that created things resemble God in some way, but are not identical to God. ​ A middle ground between univocity (saying words mean exactly the same for God and creatures) and equivocity (saying words mean completely different things for God and creatures). B. The Analogy of Being (Analogia Entis) ​ A theological idea developed in Thomas Aquinas. ​ All being derives from God, but God’s being is infinitely greater. ​ Example: ○​ A human is wise. ○​ God is wise, but in a much higher, transcendent sense. ○​ The two are analogous—similar but not identical. C. Implications for Creation ​ Since all being comes from God, creation reflects God’s nature. ​ This also means creation is contingent—it depends on God for existence at every moment. 3. Essence-Existence Distinction and Relation to Aquinas' Argument for God's Existence A. Essence vs. Existence ​ Essence = What a thing is (e.g., the essence of a triangle is having three sides). ​ Existence = The fact that it actually exists in reality. ​ In created beings, essence and existence are distinct—something could exist or not exist. ​ In God, essence and existence are identical—God’s essence is to exist (“I AM” in Exodus 3:14). B. Aquinas’ Argument for God’s Existence Based on This Distinction ​ Everything in the world has existence given to it—nothing is self-existent. ​ There must be a necessary being whose essence is existence itself—this is God. ​ This explains why creation is dependent on God at every moment. 4. Primary and Secondary Causes – Characteristics of God as Primary Cause A. What Are Primary and Secondary Causes?  ​ Primary Cause (God as First Cause): ○​ God is the ultimate source of all that exists. ○​ He is not just the first domino in a chain, but actively sustains creation at every moment. ​ Secondary Causes (Natural Processes, Human Actions, etc.): ○​ The means by which things happen in creation (rain falls, animals reproduce, humans make choices). ○​ God works through secondary causes rather than overriding them. B. How God Acts as Primary Cause ​ Unlike mechanical cause-effect chains, God’s causality is on a different level: ○​ A carpenter builds a table, but the wood still exists independently. ○​ Creation, however, only exists because God continuously sustains it. ​ Example from Aquinas: ○​ A musician playing music—if he stops, the music ceases. ○​ Similarly, if God ceased to sustain the world, it would vanish instantly. 5. Final Causes and Providence in Medieval Philosophy vs. 17th-Century Natural Philosophy A. What Are Final Causes? ​ In Aristotelian and medieval philosophy, everything in creation has a purpose (telos). ​ Example: ○​ An acorn’s final cause is to grow into an oak tree. ○​ A knife’s final cause is to cut. ​ Providence is the idea that God orders creation toward its final ends. B. The Shift in 17th-Century Natural Philosophy ​ Thinkers like Descartes, Bacon, and Newton move away from final causes and toward mechanistic explanations. ​ Nature is now seen as a machine operating by physical laws, rather than having built-in purposes. ​ God’s role changes: ○​ In medieval thought, God is an active, guiding presence. ○​ In 17th-century thought, God becomes more like a watchmaker who sets up the world and lets it run (Deism). C. Implications ​ Science advances by focusing on measurable, empirical causes. ​ But teleology is weakened, leading to a more secularized worldview. 6. Book of Nature and Book of Scripture; Allegorical Interpretation of Creation A. Two Books: Nature and Scripture ​ Medieval theology often spoke of two “books” through which God reveals truth: 1.​ The Book of Nature – The natural world, which reflects God’s wisdom and order. 2.​ The Book of Scripture – The Bible, which reveals God’s special plan of salvation. ​ This means that science and faith are not in conflict but complement each other. B. Allegorical Interpretation of Creation ​ Medieval theologians read Genesis not just literally but allegorically. ​ Fourfold sense of Scripture (see study guide term 1): 1.​ Literal – The actual events described (e.g., God creating the world in 6 days). 2.​ Allegorical – How it points to Christ (e.g., God’s creation foreshadowing Christ’s role as redeemer). 3.​ Moral – How it applies to human life (e.g., the creation story teaching us about obedience to God). 4.​ Anagogical – How it points to ultimate fulfillment in heaven (e.g., Eden as a foreshadowing of paradise). C. The Shift in Modernity ​ Post-Reformation theology (e.g., Protestantism) tended to emphasize literal interpretation over allegory. ​ Modern science often treats the Book of Nature as separate from theology, rather than as a divine revelation.