The Teachers' Handbook PDF

ers The Teachers' Handboo k The Teachers' Handbook Secondary and vocational education Waiter Geerts Rene van Kralingen u it 9 eve r ij coutinho le bussum 2018 www.coutinho.nl/teachershandbook This book has a companion website. For each chapter there is a powerpoint presentation...

ers The Teachers' Handboo k The Teachers' Handbook Secondary and vocational education Waiter Geerts Rene van Kralingen u it 9 eve r ij coutinho le bussum 2018 www.coutinho.nl/teachershandbook This book has a companion website. For each chapter there is a powerpoint presentation available. Jj FSC 1O'WW.IIc,orv MIX Papier van ver8ntwoorde herXomst FSCO C004472 © 201 8 Uitgeverij Coutinho bv All rights reserved. No parts of this publication may be reproduced or transm itted in any form or by any means, electron ic or mechanical, i ncluding photocopying, recording, stori ng in an in­ formation retrieval system or otherwise, without prior permission from the publ isher, un less it is in accordance with the exemptions establ ished in the Copyright Law of 1912. For reprographic reproduction as perm itted on the basis of Article 1 6h of the Copy­ right Law of 1 9 1 2, the legally required fee should be paid to Stichting Reprorecht (PO Box 3051, 2 1 30 KB Hoofddorp, the Netherlands, www.reprorecht.nl). Enquiries con­ cern ing the reproduction of parts of this publ ication in anthologies, readers and other compilations (Article 1 6, Copyright Law 1912) should be made to the publication and reprographic rights organization: Stichting PRO, PO Box 3060, 2 1 30 KB Hoofddorp, the Netherlands, www.stichting-pro.nl). Uitgeverij Coutinho PO Box 333 1 400 AH Bussum The Netherlands [email protected] www.coutinho.nl Typesetting: studio Pietje Precies bv, Hi lversum Cover design: Dien Bos, Amsterdam Note from the publ isher Every effort has been made to trace copyright holders. Persons or organizations wish­ ing to assert specific rights are kindly requested to contact the publisher. ISBN 978 90 469 0621 7 N U R 840 Prologue We have been educating future teachers with lots of enthusiasm and enjoyment for many years. Inevitably we have also encountered some bottlenecks. We fre­ quently noticed) for instance) that newly educated teachers were able to cope well at the start of their career) but lacked the necessary tools to establish long­ term growth later on. We were struck by the realisation that) in order to ensure the teaching career remains satisfying and effective) it is of utmost importance for teachers to continue to develop beyond completion of their degree in education. This handbook meets the needs of future teachers who require tools to connect theory and practice throughout their studies) enabling them to create well-developed lessons. After all) it takes more than learning the 'tricks of the trade' to become a qualified teacher. As a new teacher you obviously need to learn how to establish specific routines and procedures. However) you should also be able to see the world from a different perspective and acknowledge your lack of knowledge or even your mistakes) for that matter. It is this realisation that enables you to develop new perspectives and new insights. Sometimes new in­ sights contradict previously acquired knowledge) but it is precisely these con­ frontations and dilemmas which offer learning potential. Ultimately) the neces­ sity of making deliberate choices sparks reconsideration and deepening of your own unique identity. This is the process which continues to intrigue us as educa­ tors and which keeps the teaching profession interesting. We would not have been able to write this handbook without valuable input from colleagues who allowed us to witness their students' growth process. Their feedback resulted in an improved and longer second edition) which we believe is more readable and coherent. In the additional two chapters - Chapters 12 and 13 we take an in-depth look at the specialisation in teaching in secondary voca­ - tional education: VMBO and MBO. Undoubtedly, there is nothing more important than a good start. Our starting point was the publisher) Michel van de Graaf, who encouraged us to write this book. In The Teachers' Handbook we have bundled our experiences. The video­ casts displayed on the Didiclass website were a major source of inspiration: they encouraged thoughtful involvement due to their authentic focus on day-to-day teaching life. We aim to provide a close picture of the classroom reality and hope to clarify common scenarios in the world of learning, the classroom) the school and education in general. WaIter Geerts & Rene van Kralingen January 2018  Contents I ntroduction 17 DEELA How do I educate my students? 1 How do students learn? 33 1.1 A powerful learning environment motivates 34 1.1.1 How do you recognise a strong learning environment? 34 1.1.2 How can you achieve a strong learning environment? 35 1.1.3 Competence: making tasks transparent and motivating 35 1.1.4 Relationship: communicate and involve the whole class 38 1.1.5 Autonomy: making choices with Kolb and Gardner 40 1.2 What is learning? 44 1.2.1 Student Learning Activities 45 1.2.2 Aptitude levels 46 1.3 How the memory works 47 1.3.1 Sensory memory: the gatekeeper 47 1.3.2 Short-term memory: working memory 48 1.3.3 Short-term to long-term: repetition and coding 48 1.3.4 Long-term memory: knowledge storage 50 1.4 What do learning theories have to say? 51 1.4.1 Behaviourism and the benefits of conditioning 52 1.4.2 Cognitivism and the importance of metacognition 56 1.4.3 Cognitive behavioural theory and the importance of mental processes 59 1.4.4 Constructivist learning theory and key features of education 62 1.5 Reflection 66 2 How to prepare classes 67 2.1 Preparation formats 68 2.1.1 Scenario planning 69 2.1.2 The AAE model 71 2.1.3 The didactic analysis (DA) model 74  2.2 The default situation 78 2.2.1 A closer look at the students' default situation 79 2.2.2 Determining the students' default situation 82 2.3 Learning objectives 85 2.3.1 The use oflearning objectives 85 2.3.2 Formulating learning objectives 86 2.3.3 Knowledge deficits 87 2.4 Adolescents in your classroom 89 2.4.1 Perception of adolescents 89 2.4.2 Adolescence: three stages 90 2.4.3 Imbalance in the teenage brain 95 2.4.4 Family influence 97 2.4.5 Conclusions 98 2.5 Differentiation 99 2.5.1 Terms explained 99 2.5.2 How to differentiate in your classroom 100 2.5.3 Limits of differentiation 103 2.6 Reflection 104 3 How to facilitate classroom learning 105 3.1 The stages of the educational process 106 3.1.1 Aligning the learning outcomes, activities and assessments 106 3.1.2 Education control loop 107 3.2 Direct instruction: a lesson model 108 3.2.1 Stage 1: Present objectives of the lesson and activate prior knowledge 109 3.2.2 Stage 2: Introduction or instruction 109 3.2.3 Stage 3: Check ifkey concepts have been understood 109 3.2.4 Stage 4: Give instructions for student activities 109 3.2.5 Stage 5: Practice under guidance 110 3.2.6 Stage 6: Practice independently 110 3.2.7 Stage 7: Reflect on key concepts and preview new topics 111 3.3 What constitutes an effective lesson? III 3.3.1 The lesson is presented at the appropriate level 112 3.3.2 The student sees the usefulness of the material 112 3.3.3 The student is held individually accountable 112 3.3.4 The teacher outlines the structure of the lesson in progressive steps 113 3.3.5 Student learning and thinking are made visible 114 3.3.6 Feedback is immediate 114  3.4 Storytelling llS 3.4.1 Considerations llS 3.4.2 Structure 116 3.5 Asking questions 116 3.5.1 Instructional conversation 117 3.5.2 Group discussion 119 3.5.3 How can you ask questions effectively? 120 3.5.4 Asking questions at the intended cognitive level 123 3.6 Activities for collaborative learning 126 3.6.1 Check in pairs 127 3.6.2 Numbered heads 128 3.6.3 Think-pair-share 129 3.6.4 The three-step interview 130 3.6.5 Expert groups 130 3.7 Supporting larger projects 131 3.7.1 Three techniques to ask supportive questions 132 3.7.2 Interim presentation and evaluation 135 3.8 Various classroom activities 136 3.8.1 Energisers 136 3.8.2 Classroom Activities ABC 137 3.9 Reflection 140 4 How do I keep order? 141 4.1 Communication in order: Leary's Rose 142 4.1.1 Desired relationships 143 4.1.2 Different behaviours 144 4.1.3 How do you bring it into practice? 146 4.2 The five skills of Kounin 149 4.3 Classroom management: Continuous Signal ISO 4.3.1 Importance ISO 4.3.2 Good Preparation 151 4.3.3 Implementation 152 4.3.4 Transitional moments 152 4.3.5 Transition between activities 153 4.3.6 Changing focus 153 4.3.7 Student-controlled continuous signal 154 4.4 Classroom management: Alertness and the ripple effect 155 4.4.1 Importance 155 4.4.2 Names 156 4.4.3 A sign ofleadership 157 4.4.4 In word and gesture 158 4.4.5 Student-driven alertness 158  4.5 Classroom management: Overlapping 158 4.5.1 Importance 159 4.5.2 The escalation stairway 160 4.5.3 Consequences of persistent unwanted behaviours 162 4.5.4 Student-controlled overlapping 163 4.6 Classroom management: Keeping the students' attention 164 4.6.1 Importance 164 4.6.2 Magic 164 4.6.3 Keeping the group attentive during student-controlled situations 165 4.7 Classroom management: Student responsibility 166 4.7.1 Importance 166 4.7.2 Delegating 166 4.7.3 React responsively 167 4.7.4 Being strategically consistent 168 4.7.5 Responsibility in student-driven situations 169 4.8 Handling conflicts 170 4.8.1 Importance 171 4.8.2 Types of conflict 171 4.8.3 Conflict management styles 172 4.8.4 Which conflict management style is best? 173 4.8.5 Thomas-Kilmann test for teachers 174 4.8.6 Conflict management styles in practice 175 4.9 Reflection 176 5 Testing and assessment 177 5.1 The function of tests 178 5.1.1 Formative testing to adjust a learning process 178 5.1.2 Summative tests that focus on assessment 178 5.1.3 Peer assessment 180 5.2 Working towards goals 181 5.2.1 Goals and targets 181 5.2.2 Core targets and reference levels during the first years of secondary school 181 5.2.3 Final exams at secondary school: PTA, syllabi and inspection 183 5.2.4 MBO qualification file: OER, exam profiles and inspection 184 5.2.5 Teachers' responsibility 188 5.3 Converting learning objectives to tests 188 5.3.1 How to make learning objectives concrete and measurable 188 5.3.2 Higher-order and lower-order learning objectives 190 5.3.3 Bloom's taxonomy 191  5.4 Forms of assessments according to Miller's pyramid 193 5.4.1 'Knows' level and how to create open questions 194 5.4.2 'Knows how' level and tips for case studies 195 5.4.3 'Shows how' level and tips for transparency (e.g. a rubric) 197 5.4.4 'Does' level and the use of triangulation 199 5.5 Assessment and grading 203 5.5.1 The value of a grade and the appearance of precision 203 5.5.2 Transparent, valid, reliable and usable 204 5.5.3 Determining pass levels of tests with open-ended or closed-ended questions 206 5.5.4 Analysing grades 208 5.5.5 Undesirable grade culture (with a focus on merely passing) 210 5.6 Reflection 210 DEElB How can I work effectively with groups? 6 Group Processes 213 6.1 A pleasant group 214 6.1.1 Group norms 214 6.1.2 Group cohesion 215 6.1.3 Quadrants: group norms and cohesion 216 6.2 Individual needs of a student within a group 217 6.2.1 Safety by belonging 217 6.2.2 Influence 217 6.2.3 Personal contact 217 6.2.4 Maslow's hierarchy of needs 218 6.3 Directing the group process 218 6.3.1 Forming 219 6.3.2 Storming 220 6.3.3 Norming 220 6.3.4 Performing 221 6.3.5 Adjourning 221 6.4 Mapping out group relationships 222 6.4.1 Learning to observe the individual student 222 6.4.2 Making a sociogram 224 6.5 Bullying 227 6.5.1 What is bullying? 227 6.5.2 The parties involved and their behaviour 228 6.5.3 What to do about bullying? 230 6.5.4 Cyberbullying 233 6.6 Reflection 234 7 Dealing with special needs students 235 7.1 The Act on Inclusive Education 236 7.1.1 Do homogeneous classes still exist? 236 7.1.2 Which students need special support? 237 7.1.3 Getting support from school 241 7.1.4 Special education: cluster schools 242 7.2 Appropriate teaching 243 7.2.1 Planned approaches 243 7.2.2 Plans in all shapes and sizes 245 7.2.3 Lessons and opportunities for every student 247 7.2.4 Work on executive functions 248 7.2.5 Fear of failure explained 249 7.3 Appropriate teaching for specific disorders 251 7.3.1 Students with ADHD 252 7.3.2 Students with autism 255 7.3.3 Students with dyslexia 259 7.4 Support from the school organisation 261 7.4.1 Student records, explained 261 7.4.2 No two schools are the same 265 7.4.3 Three-level care model 267 7.4.4 Care teams in MBO 269 7.4.5 Long-term learning 270 7.5 Reflection 271 8 Discourse at school 273 8.1 Discourse: a closer look 274 8.1.1 The structure of a discussion 274 8.1.2 The four levels of discourse 275 8.1.3 Shifting between discourse levels 277 8.2 Discourse interventions 278 8.2.1 The various kinds of discourse intervention 279 8.3 Types of discourse partners 282 8.3.1 Conversations with students 282 8.3.2 Conversations with colleagues 284 8.3.3 Conversations with parents 285 8.4 Three specific forms of discourse 288 8.4.1 Relaying bad news 288 8.4.2 Conflict resolution 290 8.4.3 Coaching 293 8.5 Students dealing with loss 294 8.5.1 Relating your personal experience 295 8.5.2 Mourning 296  8.5.3 'Wrong' signals 298 8.5.4 What the school can do 299 8.5.5 When the student returns to school 300 8.5.6 Students dealing with divorce 302 8.6 Reflection 306 DEELC What is my school like? 9 Secondary education and vocational education 309 9.1 Interpretation of school choices 310 9. 1. 1 Development o fpersonal qualities 311 9. 1.2 Social preparation 311 9. 1.3 Preparing students for work 312 9. 1.4 Working from a vision 313 9.2 Educational system: secondary education and MBO 3 14 9.2. 1 Secondary education: lower and upper school 315 9.2.2 VMBO organisation 3 16 9.2.3 HAVO and VWO education 319 9.2.4 MBO education 320 9.2.5 Citizenship education 323 9.3 Different educational concepts 324 9.3. 1 Natural learning schools 325 9.3.2 Personalised learning 326 9.3.3 Dalton schools 326 9.3.4 Jenaplan education 327 9.3.5 Montessori schools 327 9.3.6 Steiner-Waldorf education 328 9.3.7 Educational concepts at MEO 328 9.4 Special image schools 329 9.4. 1 Examples of special image schools 329 9.4.2 Being a teacher at a special image school 331 9.5 School culture and structure 332 9.5. 1 Culture and degrees of collaboration 333 9.5.2 Culture and educational concepts 335 9.5.3 Culture and participation at schools 335 9.5.4 School structure: management forms 337 9.5.5 Care structure at schools 338 9.5.6 Relationship between educational vision, concept and structure 340 9.6 Reflection 342 10 Intercultural classes, parents and neighbourhoods 343 1 0.1 Different cultures in education 344 10. 1. 1 Migration streams i n the Netherlands 345 10.1.2 Socio-economic problems 347 1 0.2 Risks of image-building 349 1 0.2. 1 Labels, categories, stereotypes and prejudices 350 10.2.2 Pygmalion effect 351 1 0.3 Intercultural communication 351 10.3.1 Mental programming 351 1 0.3.2 Communication models 353 1 0.4 The relationship between student, parents and teacher 355 1 0.4.1 The pedagogical triangle 355 1 0.4.2 Parenting styles and the family 356 10.4.3 Parental involvement 358 10.4.4 The neighbourhood 358 1 0.4.5 Civic education 360 1 0.5 Opportunities in education 361 1O.S. 1 Language development 361 10.S.2 Designing education 363 1O.S.3 Leadership in an intercultural classroom 364 1 0.S.4 How the school can adapt to the target group 366 1 0.6 Reflection 370 DEEl D How do I develop my teaching skills 11 Becoming a good teacher 373 1 1.1 What will be expected of me as a teacher? 374 1 1. 1. 1 Your concerns 374 1 1. 1.2 Contexts and roles within the profession 377 1 1. 1.3 The Education Cooperative competencies 378 1 1.2 Being assertive and proactive 379 1 1.2. 1 In the classroom 380 1 1.2.2 In the team 381 1 1.2.3 In the school 382 1 1.3 Empathy 383 1 1.3.1 Genuine encounter 383 1 1.4 Reflection as a learning tool 385 1 1.4. 1 Self-reflection 385 1 1.4.2 The onion model and core reflection 388  1 1.4.3 Reframing 392 1 1.4.4 Feedback 392 1 1.4.5 Doing research 395 1 1.5 Balance in your work 398 1 1.5. 1 Time management 399 1 1.5.2 Coping strategies 403 1 1.5.3 The portfolio 405 1 1.5.4 You cannot do everything 407 1 1.6 Reflection 408 DEEL E How do I teach in VMBO and MBO vocational education and training? 12 Preparatory secondary vocational education (VMBO) 41 1 1 2.1 What makes VMBO unique? 412 1 2. 1. 1 A closer look at the target group 412 12. 1.2 Providing direction to learning and thought processes 413 12. 1.3 Foundations that make learning possible 415 1 2.2 Effects of the practical approach on school 415 12.2.1 Types of education available 416 1 2.2.2 Vocational preparation or general education? 416 1 2.3 The influence of the pedagogical climate 418 1 2.3.1 Pedagogical climate inside the classroom and inside the school 418 12.3.2 Improvement of the pedagogical climate at the classroom and school levels 419 1 2.4 How does one motivate students? 421 1 2.4. 1 Motivational theory 421 12.4.2 How to increase motivation 423 1 2.5 Reflection 425 13 Senior secondary vocational education and training (MBO) 427 1 3.1 The target group 428 13.1.1 Pupil or student? 428 1 3.1.2 The role of the parents 429 1 3.1.3 Part of the group 429 13.1.4 Safety at school 430 1 3.2 Guidance in lessons 43 1 1 3.2. 1 Building blocks for a vision 43 1 1 3.2.2 Preparing students for practical lessons 432 1 3.2.3 Handling your own sessions 433 1 3.3 Work placement 434 1 3.3.1 Difference between BOL and BBL courses 434 1 3.3.2 Structure within work placements 435 1 3.3.3 Methodical work placement 436 1 3.3.4 Work placement coaching at a practical level 437 13.4 Coherence in MEO 437 1 3.4. 1 Coherence in work placements 437 1 3.4.2 Coherence between practical and theoretical lessons 438 1 3.4.3 Coherence with general educational subjects 439 1 3.4.4 Coherence with career guidance 440 1 3.4.5 Coherence with tests 441 13.4.6 Practical: What does this mean for you? 443 1 3.5 Reflection 443 References 444 Index 455 Dedication 464 Introduction How to become a good teacher This handbook offers the basics required for becoming a successful teacher. A good teacher clearly matters ! Becoming a good teacher is a wonderful and, at times, difficult task. Learning a 'recipe for teaching' by heart is not sufficient in the long run. Many different perspectives on how to prepare teachers optimally have sur­ faced over the yearsj some focus on solid theoretical concepts, others on practi­ cal experience. Bearing in mind that this handbook aims to satisfy the needs of future teachers, it is useful to start by exploring the backgrounds and achieve­ ments of these various approaches. On the job learning 'You will learn that on the job' or 'It's a hands-on learning process is often stated. However, it is questionable to what extent this is true. On average a secondary school teacher is in touch with about 120 to 150 students per day. Few manag­ ers are capable of managing so many people every day. Few entertainers can do a new show every hour for a highly critical audience, let alone six times a day on average. Yet for teachers this is daily practice, which makes teaching one of the most socially oriented professions. Teachers are responsible for the learning process of all these adolescentsj their decisions determine what and how students actually learn. Decisions are made entirely by the teacher him/herself, without any involvement from assistants or colleagues. The classroom is his own domain and he* is in charge. This high level of autonomy means that, despite their social orientation, teachers hardly receive any feedback from superiors. An office employee receives frequent feedback from his boss or colleagues: 'Nice work, that report ofyours' or 'Well, I thought your presentation was some­ what chaotic and unprofessional: SpeCific feedback on skills is essential for the learning process, also for future teachers. Research on performance levels of teachers who entered the job force with alternative qualifications (Verloop & Lowyck, 2009) indicates they only achieve desirable results under certain cir­ cumstances. They have a greater chance of success if their initial degree contains elements of theory as well as practical experience and they receive intensive coaching during their initial teaching stage. Simply joining the school workforce All references to persons or functions refer to both female and male persons. 17 TheTeachers' Handbook is not sufficient. Results from countries with a long-standing tendency to employ underqualified teachers are not very hopeful. It appears that after several years these unqualified teachers can mainly be found at lower-quality schools. Typical­ ly, they end up at schools with unfavourable conditions characterized by minimal personnel requirements (Ingersoll, 200S). Teaching credential So what does work? Attending a teacher training institution and earning a teach­ ing credential? Or first testing the water by jumping in at the deep end? Experi­ ence shows that the latter generally does not make a good teacher. Theoretical knowledge is essential but will not suffice. As a teacher you certainly need to possess superior knowledge compared to your students. In addition, you need the right tools to cope with differences among students and classes. However, theory only becomes meaningful when successfully put into practice. Accord­ ingly, the future teacher should search for an optimal way to combine theory and practice. In the end, what counts is not solely your acquired knowledge but also your ability to put it into practice. A theory can only be considered sound if it proves workable for you. Teachers' personal qualities also play a key role since they mainly determine to what extent new insights, beliefs, ideals and competen­ cies eventually take shape in the classroom. The professional preparation offered by educational institutions assumes an important role by teaching students how to put generic knowledge into practice. Education and practical experience It is remarkable that teacher training institutions only really started to value prac­ tical experience towards the end of the 1 990s. These days, it is common practice for student teachers to teach independently in the field for about fifty percent of the time in the final years of their studies. In order to ensure the practical side gets thoroughly explored, schools join forces to support projects like 'training at school: Currently, teacher training institutions as well as schools offering in­ ternships seek to collaborate. In another variety of training, students attending teacher training programmes do research, supervised by teacher researchers, for school development purposes. Teacher education and development requires both teacher training and field ex­ perience. If all goes according to plan, questions will arise from the field with re­ spect to designing test items, composing lesson plans and developing algorithms, etc. These tend to be important questions, which we believe should be more frequently tackled by teacher trainers in cooperation with their students. This requires curriculum adaptations: no predefined career education programmes should be in place but rather 'electives', which should be chosen by you as a fu­ ture teacher. Supervisors in the field should in turn approach their students more rigorously and send them to a teacher training institution with specific learning 18  Introduction goals. Colleagues who train future teachers at their own school are actually not educating the teachers for that particular school. They are educating teachers for all secondary education and senior secondary vocational education and training (VET, or MBO) institutions. Hence, it should be a wide-scope approach beyond the schoolyard: the focus of the teaching profession in general demands a re­ search-oriented approach, a broad ranging interest, an eye for current develop­ ments as well as a vision of future developments. The next section will illustrate these developments while simultaneously proViding direction for the structure and composition of this textbook. Goals A wide scope As authors, one of our main goals is to enable a new generation of teachers to practise the teaching profession by means of using a wide scope as opposed to adhering to a more or less random style or approach. People usually have very specific ideas concerning what constitutes the best way to teach students. Some teachers strongly prefer their students to develop new knowledge: they focus on this. They ensure a suitable education programme and the right treatment and they present the subject matter in an academic manner. Other teachers are strong advocates of group learning: especially the added value of interaction among stu­ dents constitutes the ideal teaching method, in their opinion. The latter perform their teaching duties from a strongly social and personally meaningful stance. They intentionally or unintentionally choose a specific form of education, which is again connected to specific learning theories. Obtaining knowledge of these theories does not guarantee a suitable, ready-to-use teaching model, but it does provide some kind of direction to the educational design process. The fact that individual teachers, even within teams, decide to make different choices in teaching practice means that they undermine each other's approach. This holds for their lesson planning but even more so for their approach to teaching. Where, for instance, some teachers immediately penalise students who fail to do their homework, others let it go. Some teachers invest in their students' development and build in time to talk to them, their parents and colleagues out­ side of the classroom. Others believe they are not responsible for their students' upbringing and leave this to the parents themselves. We strongly believe that teachers should not act aimlessly and based on per­ sonal preferences. A consistent policy, jointly reinforced, ensures an unambigu­ ous approach to students while simultaneously ensuring its acceptance and im­ plementation. Reflecting on choices Many professionals are frequently asked to justify their approach, but generally speaking teachers are not used to this kind of question. In general there tends to 19 TheTeachers' Handbook be a positive effect on the quality ofwork if professionals are regularly expected to explain and justify what they do and why. Doctors, lawyers and legal advisers need to be able to explain to their clients in understandable language why they opt for a specific treatment or strategy. This reinforces their own commitment while simultaneously increasing the acceptance and cooperation of their patients or clients. However, in the educational field it hardly ever occurs that students ask why a teacher chooses, for example, group work over an in-class discussion. In other words, students rarely ask a teacher to justify educational choices. Nev­ ertheless, parents, colleagues and future teachers do have specific demands: they insist on knowing which options are available and why a certain approach was selected. In order to do so, a teacher needs to possess reflective skills. Metaphor­ ically speaking, you should be able to rewind the tape once in a while, describe what you see and explain why you acted in a certain way. Phrasing it as such suggests a teacher always acts consciously, which is cer­ tainly not the case. Research on teacher cognitions (Beijaard, Van Driel, Veld­ man, Verloop & Vermunt, 2014) indicates that practical knowledge, representing the teacher's personal theory of teaching, is often unconscious and in any case instantly applied without specific explanations. Performance will be partly based on routines and partly on intuition which has not (yet) been made explicit or shared with others. The practical knowledge theories in this handbook are not imperative but serve rather as a means to develop your own unique teaching style. This will by no means be effortless. The same research on teacher cognitions showed that interactive cognitions are fairly malleable (teaching novices were taught by sea­ soned teachers, e.g. by means of video footage, When we learn how to drive, we first how to cope with students and what was cru­ need to be able to control the vehicle it­ cial in specific lesson scenarios). On the other self. Once we have established this and hand, deeper cognitions - strongly connected it has become to a certain extent an to personal opinions and belief systems - ap­ automated process - e.g., shifting and peared not to be so easily influenced. steering should become routine behav- This second type of cognition is partly based iour - we can actually focus on the traf- on mental images adopted from teachers and fic around us. formed during one's own school period. Al­ though such types of dominant cognitions might Some teachers always explain a particu- be hard to analyse, there certainly is merit in dis­ lar topic in the exact same way. They cussing these kinds of beliefs and behaviours. As have become accustomed to this and a result, teachers will ask things like: 'Do I act in a are no longer able to adapt to their stu- certain way because I saw it done that way when I dents' needs due to their own limited was younger?' potentially followed by a question repertoire. These teachers invest neither like 'Does my behaviour, shaped by ingrained be­ in renewal of their instructional meth- liefs, actually match the school policy?' or 'Does ods nor in their teaching strategies or my unconsciously shaped behaviour fit the needs testi ng procedures. of these students?' 20  Introduction Stimulation of situational education The above leads us to the next important objective. In our view, successful teach­ ers should be open to analysing their own performance. This sounds obvious, but as a matter of fact it is not always the case. Teachers actually have a tendency to assume routine behaviour. Is this a bad thing? No, because it provides room for the teacher to focus on other processes in the classroom. In the field of education, using routines can certainly be an advantage, but there are also some drawbacks associated with routines: they can become habits, and ineffective or undesirable routines are hard to get rid of. This handbook emphasises the importance of different approaches with­ in a school or department's code of conduct, in the sense that it offers choices about how we give instructions, assist students or do actual testing. In short, we are neither advocates of independent student learning nor, conversely, of teach­ er-centred lessons; we only point out the available options. Whatever you choose should fit the circumstances. In other words, you are teaching 'situational educa­ tion', in line, of course, with the school's overall vision. Structure of this handboo k Current education entails several developments that have a major impact on the teaching profession. We support the shift of focus back to the teacher being a key figure in the student's learning environment. Moreover, we encourage increased attention to the added value of group learning processes at school. The govern­ ment is again actively involved in shaping education policy and teacher develop­ ment is again on the social agenda. These themes can be reduced to four funda­ mental questions for teachers: Part A How do I educate my students? Part B How do I work effectively with groups? Part C What is my school like? Part D How do I develop my teaching skills? These four main questions coincide with parts A to D of this handbook (Chap­ ters 1 to 1 1 ) and will be elaborated next. The fifth part (Chapters 12 and 13) will discuss the specific features of VMBOi and MEO (or MBO)2 for purposes of 1 VMBO stands for voorbereidend middelbaar beroepsonderwijs (preparatory secondary vocation­ al education). Covering four years of secondary school, from about age 1 2 to about 16, it prepares students for MBO (or VET). 2 MBO stands for middelbaar beroepsonderwijs (senior secondary vocational education and training). It prepares students for non-academic professions at five different levels. 21 TheTeachers' Handbook graduating in vocational programmes. These types of education are characterized by a target group with divergent ambitions and talents. Chapter 12 is therefore concerned with VMBO and discusses students' motivational and learning abili­ ties. This knowledge is also valuable for MBO, which will be covered in Chapter 13. We will examine student support, internships and vocational tracks as well as the level of consistency between the school and the actual profeSSion. Part E How do I teach in preparatory (YMBO) and secondary (MBO) voca­ tional education and training? Figure 1 The relationship between education and society 22  Introduction PART A H ow do I educate my students? This is a rather broad question in itself. Consequently, we will analyse several dif­ ferent aspects associated with this question. Focus on the teacher as a key figure in the learning environment Recent developments in the field of didactics show that the key role ofteachers in their students' learning environment is gaining importance. Marzano (2007) at­ tributes a central role to teachers in his meta-analysis of identified critical success factors of learning outcomes. Research by Hattie (201 2) indicates that a teach­ er's didactic approach in particular has a positive influence on student learning outcomes. Neuropsychologist Jelle Jolles (2006) regards the teacher as the only one to see the 'whole picture' as far as student capabilities are concerned. The teacher remains key in inspiring and motivating students. Hence, the conclusion is: restore the fundamental role of teachers. Invest in teachers Christopher Day (201 0) mentioned at the annual conference, 'Education Re­ search Days', in June 20 1 0 that educational innovations will only be successful with participation of motivated, involved teachers. For this reason it is of utmost importance that teachers feel at ease at their jobs; they should be appreciated and deserve to be invested in (teaching conferences, tenure tracks, refresher courses etc.). The Vereniging van Lerarenopleiders Nederland (VELON)3 has specifically designed a knowledge base for teacher educators. Teaching can be compared to a theatre In The Teachers' Handbook, new developments performance. As a member of the au­ like these are being pursued by assigning the dience you only see what happens on teacher a central role. The aim is to develop stage. However, once yo u a re active ly teachers who possess analytical and inquisitive involved in the theatre production, you attitudes towards their students, the teaching profession, as well as themselves. discover what it real ly entai ls; e.g. what happens backstage, what kind of ar­ In order to ensure that students learn some­ rangements need to be made, who par­ thing during their lessons, the initial chapter in tici pates, what rules and regulations are this book is concerned with the students' learn- in place, etc. ing process. We'll shed light on various streams of thought and different points of view. Next we'll have a look at how best to design the learning environment so as to facili­ tate the learning process. Chapter 2 zooms in on the topic of initial situations. In order to match students' needs, we need to know their pre-existing knowledge, what learning process they have experienced and to what extent they can work methodically. In Chapter 3 we will review different teaching methods as well as 3 Vereniging van Lerarenopleiders is the Dutch Association for Teacher Educators in the Nether­ lands. 23 TheTeachers' Handbook the most common teacher-directed and student-directed methods and activities. Chapter 4 is concerned with challenges in regard to maintaining classroom order. We will discuss two analytical models and resulting recommendations for class­ room management. Finally, Chapter 5 elaborates on educational objectives, the volume of learning and lessons, and assessment. Both conceptual and practical guidelines are provided to administer valid tests and evaluations. PART B How do I work effectively with groups? Teaching goes beyond reiterating lessons and that is why in Part B the scope is broadened. Both experience and research indicates that a successful teacher is able to connect with a group of students in a comfortable and intelligent manner. Research conducted by Wim van de Grift (20 10) at Groningen University shows that 80-90% of schoolteachers in secondary education actually produce fairly well-organised lessons. However, it also demonstrates that clear and structured instruction by itselfhas only a limited effect on student performance. Van de Grift (20 10) believes that a well-organised lesson accounts for only about 20 percent of the difference between learning outcomes. Most teachers do not even get to 20 percent, he argues. Fewer than 60 percent of teachers in secondary education manage to make their lessons more effective through the use of different teach­ ing methods to maximise student involvement. It is predominantly experienced teachers who are capable of involving students through the use of clever inter­ vention strategies (Van de Grift refers to providing clear instructions, involving all students, and teaching students how to study). 'These kinds of extraordinary teachers are able to cope with differences among students by providing improved explanations, creating a fruitful learning environment as well as implementing interactive teaching strategies. 'This stresses the importance of the question: how can you as a leader work effectively with groups? In Chapter 6 we discuss the impact of groups and group formation on the students themselves as well on the teacher who faces ever-changing groups. We also point out exceptional situations that arise in the classroom, for instance as a result oflarge differences among individual students: who makes up the class and how can we manage differences as a teacher? In ad­ dition, how do we handle bullying behaviour? Chapter 7 is devoted to speCial needs education. We examine which students need additional help and the role you can play to facilitate this as a teacher. Ad­ ditionally, we make the transition to a methodical approach. Which aspects re­ quire adaptations for every student to be able to follow your lessons? We provide suggestions for teaching strategies which are suitable for students with typical and distinct disorders. Finally, we examine the support provided by the school administration. Chapter 8 provides practical guidelines on how to conduct dis­ cussions with students. Several discussion techniques will be presented which can be used to create dialogue in order to work effectively with the group as a whole. 24  I ntroduction PART C What is my school l i ke? This part reviews the school as a work environment for the teacher. This work environment - contrary to many other types of workplace - is subject to many external forces, and all those forces want to have a say in the educational model. A major force is the parents. In general, your students' parents tend to be more highly educated than in the past. The families in which they raise their children often consist of two or three children and a lot ofvalue is attached to the well-be­ ing and prosperity of these children. Parents consider the school to be of critical importance in determining their children's future career path and life in general. They acknowledge the fact that teachers are a critical success factor in this. How­ ever, this does not imply that parents will always - or ever - agree with the teach­ er's approach. A fair number of parents want to control what teachers do. Another important force is society, and 'society' today contrasts sharply with society, say, forty years ago. We can illustrate this by using the following exam­ ples: Students often grow up in blended families these days. Students tend to be more assertive and prosperous. As a consequence, teach­ ers need to be more skilled to facilitate their learning. Modern society sometimes causes students to be extremely restless. Take, for instance, the ever-increasing use of internet and social media. Younger teach­ ers tend to accept this more eaSily than some teachers from older generations. Students seem to have less sense of discipline, though this is debatable. In ancient Greece, Aristotle also complained about the fact that youth lacked self-discipline. Nevertheless, this doesn't rule out that for some students the only source of guidance that is provided is actually at school, by the teacherj he/ she establishes rules and enforces them, which creates order and stability. Society is watching over the teacher's shoulder. A third major force is the political environment. One recent development is the fact that teacher quality has been 'rediscovered' by politicians. Parliamentary re­ search in the Netherlands conducted by the 'Dijsselbloem committee' (2008) revealed that teachers have been systematically neglected by leaders, reformers and managers over the past few years. On the other hand, the government tends to make considerable policy changes in education with each change of adminis­ tration. This dual approach by the government is reflected in continuous involve­ ment in many different areas. For example, in recent years governmental insti­ tutions have kept a close eye on participants in secondary vocational education (VET) levels 1 and 2. The analysis attributes a key role to teachers in preventing and/ or solving issues like school drop-out rates as well as rude and anti-social behaviour. In other words, teachers should assume a nurturing role while simul­ taneously offering their students j ob perspectives, certificates of completion, long-term internships or vocational training. Hence, students are often offered alternative courses of studies in order to keep growing and developing. At this 2S TheTeachers' Handbook point, the quality of the teacher is determined by his persistence in providing opportunities for students with learning difficulties. The government will continue to modify the school's role, since it serves es­ sential purposes within our society: students should become active citizens and acquire basic skills needed to maintain a position in society as well as achieve qualifications to secure a job. All these forces can be considered a nuisance by the teacher. Clearly, how­ ever} no Single teacher can freely teach the same old lessons for forty years. Nor would this be beneficial. The impact of various forces on the educational system induces changes, after all. These changes, in turn, offer teachers the opportuni­ ty to create their own routines. The teacher's ability to make deliberate choices amidst all these forces is key. It is therefore important to be well-informed and to be able to communicate about new developments - whether desirable or not - as a fully-fledged participant. This part of the book provides an overview of the dif­ ferent types of schools and how they are organised. We describe the cooperation between teachers and the added value of teachers' meetings. In Chapter 9 we take a closer look at the Dutch educational system. It is es­ sential as a teacher to know what type of school you are affiliated with and how this school is positioned in relation to other school types. This also enables you to judge whether a speCific type of school and school culture are a good fit and to what extent you would be able to flourish there. In Chapter 10 we cover themes related to the student's neighbourhood and home situation. We explain the type of task the school assigns itself in order to offer their students opportunities and how social workers cooperate with schools. This chapter also discusses challen­ ges which are associated with our modern multi-cultural society. PART D How do I develop my teaching skills? The fourth part of this book focuses on the question ofhow you can develop your skills as a teacher. Many factors are of concern. Future teachers should expand their knowledge of various aspects of teaching. Professional knowledge is char­ acterized by three aspects: Subject: the actual content of the subject to be taught; Method: knowing about examination procedures, types of education, and learning objectives as well as didactic methods and models such as teaching forms, lesson planning and coaching strategies; Students: knOWing about adolescents in general, and styles of upbringing and behavioural differences in particular. Apart from the fact that this helps us to explain behaviour, it also allows us to anticipate behaviour. Moreover, it facil­ itates strategiC group formation, requesting support from the right people or coming up with appropriate assignments. It is important that this threefold knowledge about subject, method and students is either applied in the field of education or originates in the field. In other words, 26  I ntroduction knowledge should become meaningful in both an inductive and deductive way. This implies that particular experiences - after looking at them in the abstract - lead to general knowledge, which in turn can be applied on an individual level. Teachers need to possess a wide range of tools in order to be able to achieve this. In Chapter 1 1 we take a closer look at professional development, which tools exist and how they can be used effectively. We address topics like being as­ sertive, proactive and empathetic as well as time management and self-reflection skills. Self-reflection is gaining importance in the field of education. New teachers tend to have a hard time since what they have been taught appears to be difficult to put into practice. Many problems can be prevented or handled differently by focusing at an early career stage (while still in training or while being coached in the first years of teaching ) on the question of what kind of teacher you aspire to be. Perception of your own professional identity is essential for your perfor­ mance (Rohaan, Beijaard & Vink, 20 12). It is important to have a clear idea of what you want to put effort into, what is important to you and especially to have a positive attitude. This will ensure you remain a dedicated and motivated teacher and pOSitively affect your student learning outcomes. This doesn't solely entail complying with a long checklist of competenciesj the knowledge and abilities required should also match your personal identity. Nowadays professional development also implies that teachers should acquire the desirable teacher competencies as prescribed by the Onderwijscooperatie4 We will delve into these competencies and show how they translate into particular characteristics, skills and development potential of teachers. The teacher competencies also provide guidance for teachers to continue de­ veloping after completion of their studies. Different areas of development are available depending on the core competencies of individual teachers: Career oriented: You continue to advance in your career by keeping up-to­ date on new theories and findings. For instance, by visiting national teacher conferences and seminars, deepening your knowledge of new subjects or per­ spectives, publishing articles and considering further study to obtain a mas­ ter's or PhD degree. The subject you teach interests you deeply. Didactically oriented : You prepare your lessons thoroughly, catering to all students' needs. Your lessons are always original and exciting. You experi­ ment with active learning methods and occasionally apply suggestions from the field of neuropsychology. Didactic methods intrigue you. You constantly search for creative forms of knowledge transfer and enhancement of skills. 4 The Onderwijscoiiperatie (Education Cooperative), formerly SBL, is an organisation that sup­ ports registration of teachers and teacher trainers and various efforts to encourage and support innovation in teaching. 27 TheTeachers' Handbook Student oriented : Your main focus of attention is the students. You consider the subject you teach, for which you earned a degree, to be a means to an end. You supervise students, are a student counsellor and attend meetings concerning special needs. In addition, you teach a few hours a week. You also decide to take counselling or mediation courses in order to offer students op­ timal social-emotional support. Organisation oriented: You have great enthusiasm for organising and coordi­ nating things among colleagues. Your work ethic is characterized by a strong sense of responsibility towards students) colleagues and parents. You are keen to speak at meetings and conferences. Colleagues acknowledge your organi­ sational talent and interpersonal skills. No doubt there are other types of orientation, but the ones mentioned above are perfectly aligned with the competency profile as described by the Education Cooperative. These orientations can) therefore, be considered a form of profiling, a specialisation which can be developed and honed. Again, self-reflection in rela­ tion to your school and school environment is essential. Modern schools take an active approach in this. The teacher is not merely active in the classroom. Investments are also made in collegial exchanges) con­ tinuing education and internships (Kessels) 1 993 j Hulsbos) Andersen) Kessels & Wassink, 20 12). There is room for input, the return on investment for the school is high with respect to additional continuing education for teachers) and the school as a whole can present a successful image. Chapter 1 1 is concerned with gaining insight into how student teachers them­ selves actually learn. Typically) in the early stages the learning curve of new teach­ ers seems to consist mainly of survival (Boter & Van der Veen) 1 997), as they are concerned with questions like 'How do I remain in control of these students?' Only in later stages can they apply themselves to the lesson and how to adapt their teaching style to their personal needs. The focus of attention tends to shift gradually towards a student-centred approach. Teachers often question why intended strategies are effective sometimes but not at other times. These kinds of questions indicate an increaSing interest in the learning process of both individual students and groups, also in different settings. This coincides with a shift of focus in the educational field: less focus on merely the teaching perspective and more incorporation of the learning perspective, en­ couraging teachers no longer just to assume the role of , babysitting' students but to fulfil a highly influential role instead. This requires a variety of competencies which can be used as tools by the teacher as required. Maybe you feel overwhelmed reading what is expected of you. This is com­ pletely understandable: all teachers tend to have these concerns. The fourth part of this book addresses the issues teachers face and how you can tackle problems by employing peer-to-peer learning. Ultimately we would like you to maximise 28  I ntroduction your potential and contribute to a school which enables you to do so, where you can provide each other with critical and constructive feedback to be able to flour­ ish as a teacher. Students deserve a top-notch teacher. We hope this handbook provides you with some of the necessary tools to become one. PART E H ow do I teach in preparatory (VMBO) and secondary (MBO) vocational education and training? The fifth part of this handbook discusses preparatory (VMBO) and senior sec­ ondary vocational education (VET, or MBO). As a teacher you can opt to spe­ cialise in vocational education. In your final year you can choose between grad­ uating in vocational education or a more general form of secondary education. 'Vocational education' refers to both VMBO and MBO education. Teachers in both school types have a lot in common. Their students aim to acquire knowl­ edge which specifically relates to their professional needs. Over half of the Dutch secondary school population pursues education in VMBO. Upon completion, almost 90% of these students will continue their training in MBO (ADEF, 201 3 ). Inherently, the majority of MBO students come from a VMBO background. If you opt for a major in vocational education, the probability is you will do both an internship and research in the field ofVMBO and MBO education. In Part E we examine various themes that characterize this type of education. Teachers encounter a range of different students in VMBO. Often they suffer from a lack of confidence. Teachers attempt to customise their didactic and ped­ agogical approach in order to build their students' self-confidence. In Chapter 1 2 we go in detail into motivational theories, based on the basic needs as described in Chapter 1. Eventually we provide you - as a future VMBO teacher - with ideas on how to stimulate VMBO students' motivational levels. Chapter 13 describes MBO students. This category consists of both younger and older students. Younger MBO students are at a different stage oflife from VMBO students (or apprentices). They focus on their peer group as opposed to their parents. They meet fellow students and peers of the same age at their regional training centre (ROC).5 Both younger and older students pursue an MBO edu­ cation while they work in the field as employees or apprentices. A relatively high number of students who attend ROCs fall into the so-called 'high-risk category: Teachers put a lot of time and effort into maintaining a good relationship with these students since they have a greater chance of dropping out. Due to the fact that lessons at an ROC are different from VMBO lessons, Part E is devoted to the quality of support in this particular area. MBO students spend a fair amount of time doing internships as part of their studies. Therefore, 5 ROe stands for Regionaal opleidingencentrum, or regional training centre. It is an institution that provides vocational education, often for both VMBO and MBO levels. 29 TheTeachers' Handbook we discuss the difference between the BOL6 and BBU educational pathways in more detail. Additionally, we describe how internships are constructed and how students effectively select a suitable internship. We also shed light on how teach­ ers can advise students throughout their internships. Due to the fact that many different subjects can be chosen at ROCs and that students are exposed to a variety of teachers, it is of utmost importance to offer a coherent programme. Internships should be intertwined with lessons as much as theory should be intertwined with practice. In Chapter 13 we illustrate the connection between 'AVO subjects'S and practical subjects. In addition, we dis­ cuss the ways in which career qualification records, stipulating competencies and work processes in MBO, work differently from the testing procedures used in VMBO education. In the MBO system, more parties are involved. Structural cooperation is in place with trade organisations. In turn, they organise collabo­ ration with supervisors from companies and institutions. In short, senior voca­ tional education is a world in itself. We will prepare you for that world. 6 BOL stands for Beroepsopleidende leerweg, or 'school-based vocational education'. BOL students spend 20-60 percent of their time in classroom study and the rest in work placements. 7 BBL stands for Beroepsbegeleidende leerweg, or 'work-based vocational education: BBL students spend at least 60 percent of their training as apprentices in the workplace. 8 AVO stands for algemeen vormend onderwijs, or general education. This term covers subjects like Dutch, English, maths, geography and history. 30 ) ( 7 1 How do students learn? 1.1 A powerful learning environment motivates 1.2 What is learning? 1.3 How the memory works 1.4 What do learning theories have to say? 1.5 Reflection 2 How to prepare classes 2. 1 Preparation formats 2.2 The default situation 2.3 Learning objectives 2.4 Adolescents in your classroom 2.5 Differentiation 2.6 Reflection 3 How to facil itate classroom learning 3.1 The stages of the educational process 3.2 Direct instruction: a lesson model 3.3 What constitutes an effective lesson? 3.4 Storytelling 3.5 Asking questions 3.6 Activities for collaborative learning 3.7 Supporting larger projects 3.8 Various classroom activities 3.9 Reflection 4 How do I keep order? 4.1 Communication in order: Leary's Rose 4.2 The five skills of Kounin 4.3 Classroom management: Continuous Signal 4.4 Classroom management: Alertness and the ripple effect 4.5 Classroom management: Overlapping 4.6 Classroom management: Keeping the students' attention 4.7 Classroom management: Student responsibility 4.8 Handling conflicts 4.9 Reflection 5 Testing and assessment 5.1 The function of tests 5.2 Working towards goals 5.3 Converting learning objectives to tests 5.4 Forms of assessments according to Miller's pyramid 5.5 Assessment and grading 5.6 Refle ction 32  1 H ow do students l earn ? An instructive lesson Jeske is in the secon d year of VW09 at De Roerdomp com p rehensive school i n Zeist. S h e h a d an interesti ng art lesson with M rs Ekkers today. M rs Ekkers is an erudite art teacher who decided to supplement her lesson with some art h istory today. She started by gatheri n g her students aro u n d her large desk. Next, with one large m ovement of her arm, she swept her desk clear. Everything tum bled onto the floor! Absol utely everythi ng: books, papers, a glass jar with pencils and paint brushes, even a potted plant! The whole class went q uiet and watched, their m ouths wide open. Jeske thought her teacher had gone mad. But M rs Ekkers looked around the classroom and said cal m ly, 'Take a look, everyone, at what is now on the floor. Notice how everyth i n g seems n icely arranged. What y o u see here is Dadaism. Dadaism is an art m ove­ ment. What you see on the floor here is an example of a type of art you can call Dadaism : N ext, M rs Ekkers used t h e beamer t o show s o m e artists' work that belonged to this movement. The students were spel lbound. The lesson was so fasci nating that Jeske couldn't stop th i n ki n g about i t for the rest of the afternoon. She decided to demonstrate this Dadaism to her fam i l y when she got back home. Later that after­ noon, she suddenly swept everyth i n g off the kitchen table. It startled her mother, who gave her an i n q u i ri n g look. Her brother thought it was fun ny and her o lder sister wondered out loud why she was behavi ng so oddly. J eske then explained to her fam i ly what Dadaism was and why it had to be demonstrated i n this way. What is needed to teach students? There is no simple answer to this basic ques­ tion. A student's learning process mostly depends on his or her own learning activities. A lot depends on how well the teacher can explain the subject matter, but that is a separate issue from the student actually learning it. Learning is a pro­ cess that takes place inside the student's head. You cannot learn for the student, 9 HAVO stands for hoger algemeen vormend onderwijs, or senior general secondary education. A HAVO diploma is awarded upon successful completion of a five-year course and allows admis­ sion to higher profeSSional education (HBO) at a hogeschool (university of applied sciences). 33 1 How do students learn? regardless of how much you'd like to be able to do so. You can't exactly take a funnel and pour knowledge into his head, but the learning process does need to be activated somehow. The teacher must create the optimal climate for learning. Thus, the 'basic groundwork' for learning can be summed up as follows: The learning process takes place inside the student's head, internally. The curriculum is presented outside the student's head, externally. We take a closer look at all the different aspects of a powerful learning environ­ ment in section l. 1 below. In other words, what action can be taken outside of the student's head in order to make sure that he retains as much information as pOSSible? We will provide some advice on how to create such a powerful learn­ ing environment. In section 1.2 we discuss what is meant by 'learning: We'll dif­ ferentiate among four categories of student learning activities and four levels of processing information. In section 1.3 we take a closer look at the workings of the memory. Finally; section 1.4 deals with the main learning theories of the twenti­ eth century. 1.1 A powerful learn ing envi ronment motivates Being familiar with various learning theories can be very useful for generating an optimal learning process for students. However, a teacher can do more to opti­ mise this process: for example, by creating a learning environment which stimu­ lates and engages the student's learning process. Research (e.g. Kaplan & Maehr, 2007) shows that students learn significantly more when they feel connected to the whole process. 1.1.1 How do you recognise a strong learning environment? A strong learning environment becomes obvious when students happily and ac­ tively go about their set tasks. The students' well-being and commitment are de­ ciding factors for this strong environment. The student's well-being There is no hard and fast rule for this. A student who feels at ease will be content and get a sense ofachievement from his school work. He is relaxed, energetic and readily approachable; he has an open mind towards his environment. However, it is not just his learning environment that gives him a sense of contentment. If a grandparent has just died, the student will naturally feel less inclined to feel positive. It goes without saying that you as the teacher cannot influence such an event, but you can make a difference in the way it is handled in the classroom. 34  1.1 A powerful learning environment motivates The degree of a student's engagement How engaged a student is will be indicative of the intensity with which he applies himself to his task. This engagement can be described in five levels: no activity; interrupted activity; activity without intensity; activity with some intensive moments; uninterrupted, intensive activity. The strength of a learning environment can be measured by gauging the engage­ ment of an individual student or of the whole group. A simple method to get an impression of the group's engagement is to start by observing a few random stu­ dents. Presenting these observations in a table will then provide a clear picture of the engagement of the group as a whole. 1. 1.2 How can you ach ieve a strong learn ing environment? A strong learning environment provides a good Adaptive education provides three basic foundation for students' basic needs (Stevens, needs - competence, relationshi p and 1 997). In order for them to feel comfortable autonomy - and is appropriate to the and engaged, three basic needs must be ad­ individual student's potential. Adaptive dressed: education is synonymous with peda­ competence: the student needs to feel he is gogical, didactic and organisational ac­ able to manage the task; tions which offer students enough room relationship: the student needs to feel in­ to learn in a motivati ng setting. cluded; autonomy: the student needs to have the freedom to make choices of his own. 1. 1.3 Competence: making tasks transparent and motivating For a student to feel competent, he needs to be During their engineering lessons stu­ convinced that he is up to the task. In practice, dents have to complete a task from this comes down to a level of education which their course book. They have to weld is slightly above his current level, but not out of two plates together with an underhand his reach (see Vygotsky's zone of proximal de­ weld by setting the welding transform­ velopment in section 1.4.3). In order to achieve er, sawing off the practice material and this, the teacher will need to understand the attaching the sawn-off plates. In practice, student's learning process. This is referred to as this turns out to be quite a chal lenge for making the learning process transparent. them. They find it difficult to read the as­ Feeling competent and up to the task not signment, don't know how to set the ma­ only leads to the student learning more, it in­ chines and lack the required motor skills. creases his motivation as well. After all, it's fun 35 1 How do students learn? to master something that seemed difficult at first. Conversely, it can be disheart­ ening to fail at something new. A judoka won't stand a chance if she has to com­ pete in a level which is out of her range. To keep students motivated and to allow the learning process to take place, they need to be prevented from facing such a situation. In your own teaching p rac tice] m otivati ng the student in different ways can reinforce your own enjoyment of teaching and give you confidence in your own abilities. This means that the teaching method doesn't dictate the process] but provides support. In addition] it implies that you would sometimes have to create smaller intermediat e tasks for your students first in order to prepare them for the larger task at hand. As a teacher, you can incorporate the basic competence skills into your lessons by bringing transparency into your lessons and by motivating your students in a variety of ways. Making the learning process transparent To make the students' learning process transparent] you could: Analyse the thinking process: Not only should you know what your students should be learning, you should also be aware of potential obstacles in their learning process. What difficulties is the student likely to encounter? This can be tricky to gauge as you, as a teacher, have already mastered the curriculum. You'll need to make a conscious analysis of the learning content. Once you know where the hurdles in the learning process are, you'll be able to guide the student appropriately. Make sure you keep verifying at what stage of the process he is working. Have the students explain things to each other: A student needs an insight into his own learning process. You as the teacher will have to help him with that. One way to achieve that is to ask a student to explain something to one or more classmates. A study by Sousa (2001 ) about the effectiveness of a stu­ dent's learning process demonstrated that teaching others is the best way to learn. One important conclusion was the fact According to Sousa we remember: that this effect depends on the way in which 1 0 percent of what we read; information is processed: students learn more 20 percent of what we hear; when they actively engage with the content. 30 percent of what we see; Sousa claims that students only remember 1 0% 50 percent of what we see and hear; of what they read and 95% of what they explain 70 percent of what has been dis- to others. Some may justifiably doubt the valid­ cussed; ity of Sousa's findings. However, as authors we 80 percent of what we have person­ give credence to the ancient Chinese saying: ally experienced; 95 percent of what we explain to I hear and I forget. others. I see and I remember. I do and I understand. 36  1. 1 A powerful learning environment motivates Cl Motivating the student Students can be motivated to learn in a number of ways (see also Chapter 12). We saw how a transparent learning process can significantly improve their moti­ vation. When the teacher has good insights into students' learning processes, he will be able to divide the curriculum into manageable portions. This is crucial, as viable steps have an extremely motivating effect on students. We'll discuss three more motivating factors: The teacher's enthusiasm: A teacher who is enthusiastic about his own pro­ fession clearly conveys a positive message about the subject. All of his behav­ iour should demonstrate this enthusiasm, as students will see right through a teacher who doesn't act in a genuine way. A teacher will show his enthusi­ asm by bringing newspaper cuttings to the lesson, telling personal anecdotes, showing appropriate props in the lesson, giving positive feedback on com­ pleted assignments, and thanking his students for their efforts. Making content meaningful : The curriculum will motivate students if they find it worth the effort to learn. Some coercion might be useful - having a test to look forward to could be all that is needed - but this form of extrinsic mo­ tivation on its own is not enough. The idea is to stimulate intrinsic motivation in the students. This can be achieved by making the curriculum meaningful, by letting the student experience its added value for him as an individual. He needs to see its application in his daily life, or alternatively, the content should give meaning to his personal functioning. Teachers should make the teaching content relevant on a regular basis. This creates ownership: the student will feel he is the owner of his own meaningful learning process. This in turn will motivate him. The teacher's expectations: As a teacher, you give off constant signals to convey your expectations of a student. A well-known study by Rosenthal & Jacobson ( 1968) clearly demonstrates that a teacher who has clear expecta­ tions of a student will express this in his behav­ Rosenthal and Jacobson gave a gener- iour, positively influencing actual achievements al ski lls test at an elementary school in in that student. Students responding to the San Francisco at the start of the 1 968- teacher's positive expectations is known as the 1 969 school year. They implied to the Pygmalion (or RosenthaI) effect. Pygmalion teachers that they were able to predict was a Greek mythological king who sculpted which of the students would make great such a beautiful female figure that he became strides in the coming year. In reality, the hopelessly infatuated with it. This doesn't mean test was totally unsuitable for this pur- you should impose too high an expectation on pose. In addition, the five names from your students; your expectations should spur each class were random choices. By the them on and encourage them into the zone of end of the school year the teachers re- proximal development (see section 1.4.3 ). If, ported better results with those five however, your demands are too high, the stu­ randomly chosen students than with dent will end up in the panic zone, which would the rest of the students. be detrimental to his learning process. 37 1 How do students learn? 1. 1.4 Relationship: communicate and involve the whole class Students feel the need to have a relationship with their teacher and with fellow stu­ dents. A student will function well when he can trust his teacher and when he feels he is an active part of the group. As a teacher you can support this process by: Stimulating and utilising the social process. Involving all students in the lesson, even in a large group. Taking some communication advice to heart. Stimulating and util ising the social process Learning takes place within a social context. The school functions like a meet­ ing place. Many students experience going to school as a pleasant social activity: it's where they see their friends; a large part of their social life is at school. As a teacher you can use this to motivate students in their learning process. It's easy to create a working atmosphere conducive to student participation and good effort. Mutual engagement creates commitment. Also, bear in mind that learning is a social process. Learning improves when students are engaged with the curriculum while interacting with each other. They have to verbalise the content and hone their thinking skills. They get to re­ structure existing knowledge and make new connections to reach fresh insights. Through this process, students develop their own view of the material. This is what social constructivism entails. This sociological theory of knowledge takes the view that people construct their own knowledge through interaction with other individuals (see section 1.4.4). Commitment Comm itment sounds like yet another trendy concept that you are expected to devote yourself to as a teacher. As a teacher, you naturally want your students to have a connection with you, with each other and with their school work. It would be so easy to take this need for connection for granted and to forget to pay atten­ tion to it. This can be a pitfall. Com m itment doesn't appear out of nowhere, but is created by consciously setting a good exam ple: showing your comm itment while work­ ing with your students; during assignments, during explanations; in other words, in everything you do. Take a look at your students. Who are they? What are their abilities? What are their wishes? Incorporate their needs. Once students notice that you are genuinely interested in them and that you really want them to learn, they will feel validated. They will start to put trust in you and in themselves. Furthermore, by showing that you are keen to get the best out of yourself, they will in turn live up to your highest expectations. A good relationship involves a bit of give and take. Students will give gladly, as long as their achievements are appre­ ciated. If you apply yourself to this, comm itment will be a natural outcome. It's as simple as that. 38  1. 1 A powerful learning environment motivates Cl I nvolve all students in the lesson, even in large groups Teachers often assume that smaller classes give more options for a strong learn­ ing environment than larger classes. Research such as by Fredericks et al. (2004), however, shows that quality of teaching is a stronger deciding factor than group size. Quality of teaching involves the ability to actively engage all students in the lessons. Teachers should make sure that students in larger groups do not feel anonymous and unnoticed. The challenge is to find a balance between paying attention to individual students and at the same time keeping an eye on group cohesion as a whole. This can be achieved by encouraging students to have confi­ dence in each other and by making agreements Activating education is based on the on collaboration during lesson times (see Chap­ premise that students will learn better ter 6). Some teachers excel in getting maximum when positively engaged through acti- commitment out of their charges, irrespective vating strategies in the classroom. of class size. Activating didactics is a key ele­ ment in achieving this feat (see Chapter 3). Taking some communication advice to heart In order to actively engage students in your lessons, you could apply some basic rules of communication: Follow the class and its students. This will form the basis of each contact and of each individual lesson. You need to see what each student does, whether he has understood your instructions or whether in fact he is bored. This means not only explaining what he needs to know, but also observing his response. This is crucially important for the student. It will make him feel validated. Make active eye contact. This is an integral part of not only noticing individ­ ual students, but also managing the whole class. Actively send out signs of confirmation to both individual students and the group as a whole. This could be a wink, a nod or simply a pat on the back. Even responding to a poorly formulated question is a sign of confirmation. By doing this, you let the student know that you have acknowledged him, giving him the reassurance that he is worth being noticed. Give positive affirmation of students' actions. This is to show the student that you enjoy interacting with him. Any question can be met with positive feed­ back like 'That's an excellent question, I'm sure some ofyour classmates want to hear the answer again too.' A non-approving way of responding in such a situation could be, 'That's dumb, why didn't you get that the first time?' The student might feel noticed in that case, but not in a pleasant way. Next time, this student will think twice before asking a question and will withdraw into anonymity - exactly the reverse of what you want to achieve. Make sure that clear instructions for equal turns are given. You are responsi­ ble for making the lesson progress well. It's a good idea, when asking a ques­ tion, to pose it to the class as a whole, pause for a minute to give the class some thinking time, and only then point at a student to answer it. 39 1 How do students learn? Make sure you involve the whole class when you ask an individual student a question. Address the whole group again as soon as the student's turn is over. An individual student's questions can be put to the group as a whole as well: in