Textbook-Unit 2 PDF

Modules 4 The Need for Psychological Science 5 The Scientific Method and Description 6 Correlation and Experimentation Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life 8 Frequently Asked Questions About Psychology na difficult moment-after an argument with a loved one, a social embarrass-...

Modules 4 The Need for Psychological Science 5 The Scientific Method and Description 6 Correlation and Experimentation Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life 8 Frequently Asked Questions About Psychology na difficult moment-after an argument with a loved one, a social embarrass- Iment, or a bad grade- to whom do you turn? For advice and comfort, we often turn to friends and family, or search online. Psychology can also shed insight. Psychologists start with the questions that intrigue all of us: How can we be hap - pier, healthier, and more successful? What can we do to improve our relationships? Why do people act and think as they do? But psychological science takes it a step further and uses careful research to separate uninformed opinions from examined conclusions. 29 30 Unit II Research Methods: Thinking Critically With Psychological Science The Need for Psychological Science Module Learning Objectives Describe how hindsight bias, overconfidence, and the tendency to perceive order in random events illustrate why science-based answers are more valid than those based on intuition and common sense. Identify how the three main components of the scientific attitude relate to critical thinking. How do hindsight bias, overconfidence, and the tendency to perceive order in random events illustrate why science-based answers are more valid than those based on intuition and common sense? S ome people suppose that psychology merely documents and dresses in jargon what people already know: "So what else is new-you get paid for using fancy methods to prove what everyone knows?" Others place their faith in human intuition: "Burie.... , J '~'. '".#'.~ ","' -.' ,...... '..... ~;;tr'1'''':~:'I'~~'''~''''-~.""i......,:. :r-..'.-J.~ '.~'. -:........ >-,' ~ ,~. :~''''';. ")......L..........{~!~:~l:i.:ti Note that the test scores in Class A and Class B have the same mean (80), but very different standard deviations, which tell us more about how the students in each class are really faring. Test Scores in Class A Test Scores in Class B Deviation from Deviation from Score the Mean Squared Deviation Score the Mean Squared Deviation 72 -8 64 60 -20 400 74 -6 36 60 -20 400 77 -3 9 70 -10 100 79 -1 70 -10 100 82 +2 4 90 +10 100 84 +4 16 90 +10 100 85 +5 25 100 +20 400 87 +7 49 100 +20 400 Total = 640 Sum of (deviations)2 = 204 Total = 640 Sum of (deviations)2 = 2000 Mean = 640 + 8 = 80 Mean = 640 + 8 = 80 Standard deviation = Standard deviation = ISum of (deviation sF = ~ 204 = 5.0 ISum of (deviationsF =~2000 = 15.8 -V Number of scores 8 -V Number of scores 8 Most cases fall near the mean, and fewer cases fall near eith er extreme. This bell-shaped normal curve (normal distribution) distribution is so typical that we call the curve it forms the normal curve. a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve As FIGURE 7.3 shows, a useful property of the normal curve is that roughly 68 percent th at describes the distribution of of the cases fall within one standard deviation on ei ther side of the mean. About 95 percent many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent of cases fall within two standard deviations. Thus, as Module 61 notes, about 68 percent of fall withi n one standard deviation people taking an intelligence test will score within ±15 points of 100. About 95 percent will of it) and fewer and fewer near the score within ±30 points. extremes. Figure 7.3 About 68 percent The normal curve Scores on Number of of people sco re scores within 15 points aptitude tests tend to form a normal, or above or below 100. bell-shaped, curve. For example, the About 95 most commonly used intelligence test, percent of all the Wechsler Adu lt Intelligence Scale, peo ple fall within 30 points of 100. calls the average score 100. 0.1% 0.1% 34% : 34% 55 70 85 100 115 130 145 Wechsler intelligence score 60 Unit II Research Methods: Thinking Critically With Psycholog ical Science Inferential Statistics How do we know whether an observed difference can be generalized to other populations? Data are "noisy." The average score in one group (breast-fed babies) could conceivably dif- fer from the average score in another group (bottle-fed babies) not because of any real dif- ference but merely because of chance fluctuations in the people sampled. How confidently, then, can we infer that an observed difference is not just a fluke- a chance result of your sampling? For guidance, we can ask how reliable and significant the differences are. These inferential statistics numerical inferential statistics help us determine if results can be generalized to a larger population. data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true When Is an Observed Difference Reliable? of a population. In deciding when it is safe to generalize from a sample, we should keep three principles in mind. 1. Representative samples are better than biased samples. As noted in Module 5, the best basis for generalizing is not from the exceptional and memorable cases one finds at the extremes but from a representative sample of cases. Research never randomly samples the whole human population. Thus, it pays to keep in mind what population a study has sampled. 2. Less-variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable. As we noted in the example of the basketball player whose game-to-game points were consistent, an average is more reliable when it comes from scores with low variability. 3. More cases are better than fewer. An eager high school senior visits two university campuses, each for a day. At the first, the student randomly attends two classes and discovers both instructors to be witty and engaging. At the next campus, the two sampled instmctors seem dull and uninspiring. Re turning home, the student (discounting the small sample size of only two instructors at each institution) tells friends about the "great instmctors" at the first school, and the "bores" at the second. Again, we know it but we ignore it: Averages based on many cases are more reliable (less variable) than averages based on only a few cases. The point to remember: Smart thinkers are not overly impressed by a few anecdotes. Generalizations based on a few unrepresentative cases are unreliable. When Is a Difference Significant? Perhaps you've compared men's and women's scores on a laboratory test of aggression, and found a gender difference. But individuals differ. How likely is it that the gender difference you found was just a fluke? Statistical testing can estimate the probability of the result oc- curring by chance. Here is the underlying logic: When averages from two samples are each reliable mea- sures of their respective populations (as when each is based on many observations that have small variability), then their difference is likely to be reliable as well. (Example: The less the variability in women's and in men's aggression scores, the more confidence we would have that any observed gender difference is reliable.) And when the difference between the sample averages is large, we have even more confidence that the difference between them reflects a real difference in their populations. In short, when sample averages are reliable, and when the difference between them statistical significance a is relatively large, we say the difference has statistical significance. This means that the statistical statement of how likely it observed difference is probably not due to chance variation between the samples. is that an obtained result occurred by chance. In judging statistical significance, psychologists are conservative. They are like juries who must presume innocence until guilt is proven. For most psychologists, proof beyond a  Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life Mod u Ie 7 61 reasonable doubt means not making much of a finding unless the odds of its occurring by chance, if no real effect exists, are less than 5 percent. When reading about research, you should remember that, given large enough samples, a difference between them may be "statistically significant" yet have little practical signifi- Sometimes a phrase that is cance. For example, comparisons of intelligence test scores among hundreds of thousands frequently used in the media has of first-born and later-born individuals indicate a highly significant tendency for first-born a more specific meaning when individuals to have higher average scores than their later-born siblings (Kristensen & Bjerk- used in psychology. That's the case with the phrase "statistically edal, 2007; Zajonc & Markus, 1975). But because the scores differ by only one to three significant." Make sure you know points, the difference has little practical importance. the precise meaning. The point to remember: Statistical significance indicates the likelihood that a result will happen by chance. But this does not say anything about the importance of the result. ~ ASK YOURSELF Find a graph in a popular magazine ad. How does the advertiser use (or abuse) statistics to make a point? ~ TEST YOURSELF Can you solve this puzzle? The registrar's office at the University of Michigan has found that usually about 100 students in Arts and Sciences have perfect grades at the end of their first term at the University. However, only about 10 to 15 students graduate with perfect grades. What do you th ink is the most likely explanation for the fact that there are more perfect grades after one term than at graduation (Jepson et ai., 1983)? Answers to the Test Yourself questions can be found in Appendix E at the end of the book. Module 7 Review How do we describe data using th ree mea- Measures of variation tell us how diverse data are. Two sures of central tendency, and what is the measures of variation are the range (which describes the relative usefulness of the two measures of gap between the highest and lowest scores) and the variation? standard deviation (which states how much scores vary around the mean, or average, score). A measure of central tendency is a single score that represents a whole set of scores. Three such measures are Scores often form a normal (or bell-shaped) curve. the mode (the most frequently occurring score), the mean (the arithmetic average), and the median (the middle score in a group of data). 62 Unit II Research Meth ods: Thin king Criti cally With Psyc hologica l Science How do we know whether an observed the observations, on average, had low variability; difference can be generalized to other the sample consisted of more than a few cases; and populations? the observed difference was statistically significant. To feel confident about generalizing an observed difference to other populations, we would want to know that the sample studied was representative of the larger population being studied; Multiple-Choice Questions 1. Which of the following is a measure of variation? 4. Descriptive statistics _ _ _ _ , while inferential a. Range statistics _ _ __ b. Mean a. indicate the significance of the data; summarize the c. Mode data d. Frequency b. describe data from experiments; describe data from e. Median surveys and case studies c. are measures of central tendency; are measures of 2. Which statistical measure of central tendency is most variance affected by extreme scores? d. determine if data can be generalized to other a. Mean populations; summarize data b. Median e. summarize data; determine if data can be generalized c. Mode to other populations d. Skew e. Correlation 5. In a normal distribution, what percentage of the scores in the distribution falls within one standard deviation on 3. A researcher calculates statistical significance for her either side of the mean? study and finds a 5 percent chance that results are due a. 34 percent to chance. Which of the following is an accurate b. 40 percent interpretation of this finding? c. 50 percent a. This is well beyond the range of statistical d. 68 percent significance. e. 95 percent b. This is the minimum result typically considered statistically significant. c. This is not statistically significant. d. There is no way to determine statistical significance without replication of the study. e. Chance or coincidence is unrelated to statistical significance.  Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life Mod u Ie 7 63 Practice FROs 1. Explain the difference between descriptive and inferen - 2. The following data set includes information from survey tial statistics in research. research in a psychology course regarding how many hours each individual in the class spen t preparin g for the Answer (2 points) exam. Student Amount of hours reported studying 1 point: Descriptive statistics organize and summarize the 1 2 data collected during research. 2 3 1 point: Inferential statistics are used to help determine 3 6 whether results can be generalized to a larger population 4 8 through the calculation of statistical significance. 5 9 6 9 7 21 Examine the data and respond to the following: What is the middle score in this distribution? What term is used to describe the middle score? What would be the most useful statistic for measuring the variation of the hours spent studying? Why is this statisti c a better measure of variation than the range? (3 points)  64 Unit II Research Methods: Thinking Critical ly With Psyc hological Science ~---- Frequently Asked Questions About Psychology Module Learning Objectives Explain the value of simplified laboratory conditions in illuminating everyday life. Discuss whether psychological research can be generalized across cultures and genders. Explain why psychologists study animals, and describe the ethical guidelines that safeguard animal research participants. Describe the ethical guidelines that safeguard human research participants. Examine whether psychology is free of value judgments. W e have reflected on how a scientific approach can restrain biases. We have seen how case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys help us describe behavior. We have also noted that correlational studies assess the association between two variables, which indicates how well one thing predicts another. We have examined the logic that underlies experiments, which use control conditions and random assignment of par- ticipants to isolate the effects of an independent variable on a dependent variable. And we have considered how statistical tools can help us see and interpret the world around us. Yet, even knowing this much, you may still be approaching psychology with a mixture of curiosity and apprehension. So before we plunge in, let's entertain some frequently asked questions. Psychology Applied Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life? When you see or hear about psychological research, do you ever wonder whether people's behavior in the lab will predict their behavior in real life? For example, does detecting th e blink of a faint red light in a dark room have anything useful to say about flying a plane at night? If, after playing violent video games in the lab, teens become more willing to push buttons that they think elec trically shock someone, does this indicate that playing shooter games makes someone more likely to commit violence in everyday life?  Frequently Asked Questions About Psychology Mod u Ie 8 65 Before you answer, consider: The experimenter intends th e laboratOlY environment to be a simplified reality-one that simulates and controls important features of everyday life. Just as a wind tunnel lets airplane designers re-create airflow forces under controlled conditions, a laboratOlY experiment lets psychologists re-create psychological forces under controlled conditions. An experim ent's purpose is not to re-create the exac t behaviors of everyday life but to test theoretical principles (Mook, 1983). In aggression studies, deciding whether to push a button that delivers a shock may not be the same as slapping someone in the face, but the principle is the same. It is the resulting principles-not the specific findings-that help explain everyday behaviors. WIlen psychologists apply laboratOlY research on aggression to actual violence, they are applying theoretical principles of aggressive behavior, principles they have refined through many experiments. Similarly, it is the principles of the visual system, developed from ex- periments in artificial settings (such as looking at red lights in the dark), that researchers apply to more complex behaviors such as night flying. And many investigations show that principles derived in the laboratory do typically generalize to the everyday world (Anderson et al., 1999). The point to remember: Psychological science focuses less on particular behaviors than on seeking general principles that help explain many behaviors. And remember: Although psychological principles may help predict behaviors for groups of people, they minimally predict behavior for any individual. Knowing students' grade level may clue us to their aver- age vocabulmy level, but individual students' word power will vary. culture the enduring behaviors, Does behavior depend on one's culture and gender? ideas, attihldes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and trans mitted from one What can psychological studies done in one time and place-often with people from what gen era tion to the next. researchers call the WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic) cul- tures (Henrich et al., 2010) really tell us about people in general? As we will see time and again, culture-shared ideas and behaviors that one generation passes on to the next- matters. Our culture shapes our behavior. It influences our standards of promptness and Soccer shoes? Because cu lture frankness, our attitudes toward premarital sex and varying body shapes, our tendency to shapes social behavior, actions that be casual or formal, our willingness to make eye contact, our conversational distance, and seem ordinary to some may seem odd to others. Yet underlying these much, much more. Collectivist cultures, for example, emphasize group goals, while indi- differences are powerful similarities. vidualist cultures put a priority on individual goals. Being aware of such differences, we can Children everywhere love to play sports restrain our assumptions that others will think and act as we do. Given the growing mixing such as soccer. But many American children would only play w ith athletic and clashing of cultures, our need for such awareness is urgent. shoes on a field , not barefoot in the It is also true, however, that our shared biological heritage unites us as a universal street, as do these Burkina Faso boys. human family. The same underlying processes guide people everywhere. People diagnosed with specific learning disorder (formerly called dyslexia) exhibit the same brain malfunction whether they are Italian, French, or British (Paulesu et al., 2001). Variation in languages may impede communication across cultures. Yet all languages share deep princi- ples of grammar, and people from opposite hemi- spheres can communicate with a smile or a frown. People in different cultures vary in feelings of lone- liness. But across cultures, lon eliness is magnified by shyness, low self-esteem, and being unmarried (Jones et al., 1985; Rokach et aI., 2002). 66 Un it II Research Methods: Thinking Critically With Psychological Science We are each in certain respects like all others, like some others, and like no other. Study- ing people of all races and cultures helps us discern our similarities and our differences, our human kinship and our diversity. You will see throughout this book that gender matters, too. Researchers report gender differences in what we dream, in how we express and detect emotions, and in our risk for alcohol use disorder, depression, and eating disorders. Gender differences fascinate us, and studying them is potentially beneficial. For example, many researchers believe that women carry on conversations more readily to build relationships, while men talk more to give in- formation and advice (Tannen, 2001). Knowing this difference can help us prevent conflicts and misunderstandings in everyday relationships. But again, psychologically as well as biologically, women and men are overwhelmingly similar. Whether female or male, we learn to walk at about the same age. We experience the same sensations of light and sound. We feel the same pangs of hunger, desire, and fear. We exhibit similar overall intelligence and well-being. "All people are the same; only The point to remember: Even when specific attitudes and behaviors vary by gender or their habits differ." -CONFUCIUS, across cultures, as they often do, the underlying processes are much the same. 551-479 B.C.E. Ethics in Research Why do psychologists study animals, and is it ethical to experiment on animals? Many psychologists study animals because they find them fascinating. They want to un- derstand how different species learn, think, and behave. Psychologists also study animals to learn about people. We humans are not like animals, we are animals, sharing a common biology. Animal experiments have therefore led to treatments for human diseases-insulin for diabetes, vaccines to prevent polio and rabies, transplants to replace defective organs. "Rats are very similar to humans Humans are complex. But the same processes by which we learn are present in rats, except that they are not stupid enough to purchase lottery monkeys, and even sea slugs. The simplicity of the sea slug's nervous system is precisely tickets." -DAVE BARRY, JULY 2, 2002 what makes it so revealing of the neural mechanisms of learning. Sharing such similarities, should we not respect our animal relatives? "We cannot defend our scientific work with ani- mals on the basis of the similarities between them and ourselves and then defend it morally on the basis of differences," noted Roger Ulrich (1991). The animal protection movement protests the use of animals in psychological, biological, and medical research. Researchers remind us that the animals used worldwide each year in research are but a fraction of 1 per- cent of the billions of animals killed annually for food. And yearly, for every dog or cat used in an experiment and cared for under humane regulations, 50 others are killed in humane animal shelters (Goodwin & Morrison, 1999). Some animal protection organizations want to replace experiments on animals with naturalistic observation. Many animal researchers respond that this is not a question of good versus evil but of compassion for animals versus compassion for people. How many of us would have attacked Louis Pasteur's experiments with rabies, which caused some dogs to suffer but led to a vaccine that spared millions of people (and dogs) from agonizing death? And would we really wish to have deprived ourselves of the animal research that led to effective methods of training children with mental disorders, of understanding aging, and "Please do not forget those of of relieving fears and depression? The answers to such questions vary by culture. In Gallup us who suffer from incurable surveys in Canada and the United States, about 60 percent of adults deem medical testing diseases or disabilities who hope on animals "morally acceptable." In Britain, only 37 percent do (Mason, 2003). for a cure through research that requires the use of animals." Out of this heated debate, two issues emerge. The basic one is whether it is right to -PSYCHOLOGIST DENNIS FEENEY (1987) place the well-being of humans above that of animals. In experiments on stress and cancer, is it right that mice get tumors in the hope that people might not? Should some monkeys be exposed to an HIV-like virus in the search for an AIDS vaccine? Is our use and consumption of other animals as natural as the behavior of carnivorous hawks, cats, and whales? Defend- ers of research on animals argue that anyone who has eaten a hamburger, worn leather shoes, tolerated hunting and fishing, or supported the extermination of crop-destroying or plague-carrying pests has already agreed that, yes, it is sometimes permissible to sacrifice animals for the sake of human well-being. Scott PIous (1993) notes, however, that our compassion for animals varies, as does our compassion for people-based on their perceived similarity to us. As Module 79 explains, we feel more attraction, give more help, and act less aggressively toward similar others. Likewise, we value animals according to their perceived kinship with us. Thus, primates and companion pets get top priority. (Western people raise or trap mink and foxes for their fur, but not dogs or cats.) Other mammals occupy the second rung on the privilege ladder, fol- lowed by birds, fish, and reptiles on the third nmg, with insects at the bottom. In deciding which animals have rights, we each draw our own cut-off line somewhere across the animal kingdom. If we give human life first priority, what safeguards should protect the well-being of animals in research? One survey of animal researchers gave an answer. Some 98 percent supported government regulations protecting primates, dogs, and cats, and 74 percent sup- "The greatness of a nation can be judged by the way its animals ported regulations providing for the humane care of rats and mice (PIous & Herzog, 2000). are treated." -M AHATMA GANDHI, Many professional associations and funding agencies already have such guidelines. British 1869-1948 Psychological Society guidelines call for housing animals under reasonably natural living conditions, with companions for social animals (Lea, 2000). American Psychological As- sociation (APA) guidelines state that researchers must ensure the "comfort health, and humane treatment" of animals and minimize "infection, illness, and pain" (APA 2002). The European Parliament now mandates standards for animal care and housing (Voget 2010). Animals have themselves benefited from animal research. One Ohio team of research psychologists measured stress hormone levels in samples of millions of dogs brought each year to animal shelters. They devised handling and stroking methods to reduce stress and ease the dogs' transition to adoptive homes (Tuber et aL 1999). Other studies have helped improve care and management in animals' natural habitats. By revealing our be- havioral kinship with animals and the remarkable intelligence of chimpanzees, gorillas, and other animals, experiments have also led to increased empathy and protection for them. At its best, a psychology concerned for humans and sensitive to animals serves the welfare of both. Animal research benefiting animals Thanks partly to research on the benefits of novelty, control, and stimulation, these gorillas are enjoying an improved quality of life in New York's Bronx Zoo. 68 Un it II Research Methods: Thinking Critically With Psychological Science What ethical guidelines safeguard human participants? Does the image of white-coated scientists delivering electric shocks trouble you? If so, you'll be relieved to know that most psychological studies are free of such stress. With people, blink- ing lights, flashing words, and pleasant social interactions are more common. Moreover, psy- chology's experiments are mild compared with the stress and humiliation often inflicted by reality TV shows. In one episode of The Bache/or, a man dumped his new fiancee-on camera, at the producers'request-for the woman who earlier had finished second (Collins, 2009). Occasionally, though, researchers do temporarily stress or deceive people, but only when they believe it is essential to a justifiable end, such as understanding and controlling violent behavior or studying mood swings. Some experiments won't work if participants know everything beforehand. (Wanting to be helpful, the participants might try to confirm the researcher's predictions.) Ethical principles developed by the American Psychological Association (2010), by the informed consent an ethical principle that research participants British Psychological Society (2009), and by psychologists internationally (Pettifor, 2004), be told enough to enable them urge researchers to (1) obtain potential participants' informed consent, (2) protect them to choose whether th ey wish to frou) physical or emotional harm and discomfort, (3) keep information about individual participate. participants confidential, and (4) fully debrief people (explain the research afterward). debriefing th e postexperimental Moreover, most universities (where a great deal of research is conducted) now have an eth- explanation of a study, including its ics committee-an Institutional Review Board (IRB)-that screens research proposals and purpose and any deceptions, to its safeguards participants' well- being. participants. The ideal is for a researcher to be sufficiently informative and considerate so that partici- pants will leave feeling at least as good about themselves as when they came in. Better yet, they should be repaid by having learned something. Is psychology free of value judgments? "It is doubtless impossible to approach any human problem with a mind free from bias." Psychology is definitely not value-free. Values affect what we study, how we study it, and -SIMONE DE BEAUVOIR, THE SECOND how we interpret results. Researchers'values influence their choice of topics. Should we SEX, 1953 study worker productivity or worker morale? Sex discrimination or gender differences? Conformity or independence? Values can also color "the facts." As we noted earlier, our preconceptions can bias our observations and interpretations; sometimes we see what we want or expect to see (FIGURE 8.1). Even the words we use to desclibe something can reflect our values. In psychology and in evelyday speech, labels describe and labels evaluate: One person's rigidity is another's consis- tency. One person's faith is another's fanaticism. One country's enhanced inteJTogation techniques, such as cold-water immersion, become torture when practiced by its enemies. Our labeling someone as finn or stubborn, careful or picky, discreet or secretive reveals our own attitudes. Mike Kemp/Getty Images Figure 8.1 What do you see? Our expectations influence what we perceive. Did you see a duck or a rabbit? Show some friends this image with the rabbit photo above covered up and see if they are more likely to perceive a duck head instead. (From Shepard, 1990.)  Freq uently Asked Questions About Psychology Mod u Ie 8 69 Popular applications of psychology also contain hidden values. If you defer to "professional" guidance about how to live-how to raise children, how to achieve self-fulfillment, what to do with sexual feelings, how to get ahead at work-you are accepting value-laden advice. A science of behavior and mental processes can help us reach our goals. But it cannot decide what those goals should be. If some people see psychology as merely common sense, others have a dif- ferent concern- that it is becoming dangerously powerful. Is it an accident that astronomy is the oldest science and psychology the youngest? To some, exploring the external universe seems far safer than exploring our own inner universe. Might psychology, they ask, be used to manipulate people? Knowledge, like all power, can be used for good or evil. Nuclear power has been used to light up cities-and to demolish them. Persuasive power has been used to educate people-and to deceive them. Although psychology does indeed have the power to deceive, its purpose is to enlighten. Every day, psychologists are exploring ways to enhance learning, creativity, and compassion. Psychology speaks to many of our world's great problems- war, overpopulation, prejudice, family cri- ses, crime-all of which involve attitudes and behaviors. Psychology also speaks to our deepest longings-for nourishment, for love, for happiness. Psychology cannot Psychology speaks In making its address all of life's great questions, but it speaks to some mighty important ones. historic 1954 school desegregation decision, the U.S. Supreme Court cited the expert testimony and research of psychologists Kenneth Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark (1947). The Clarks reported that, when given a choice ~ ASK YOURSELF between Black and Wh ite dol ls, most Were any of this module's Frequently Asked Questions your questions? Do you have other African-American ch ildren chose the questions or concerns about psychology? Wh ite doll , which seemingly indicated internalized anti-Black prejud ice. ~ TEST YOURSELF How are human and an imal research participants protected? Answers to the Test Yourself questions can be found in Appendix E at the end of the book. Module 8 Review Can laboratory experiments illuminate Why do psychologists study animals , and is everyday life? it ethical to experiment on animals? Researchers intentionally create a controlled, artificial Some psychologists are primarily interested in animal environment in the laboratory in order to test general behavior; others want to better understand the theoretical principles. These general principles help ex- physiological and psychological processes shared by plain everyday behaviors. humans and other species. Government agencies have established standards for Does behavior depend on one's culture and animal care and housing. Professional associations and gender? funding agencies also establish guidelines for protecting animals' well-being. Attitudes and behaviors may vary somewhat by gender or across cultures, but because of our shared human kinship, the underlying processes and principles are more similar than different. 70 U n it II Research Methods: Thinking Critically With Psychological Science What ethical guidelines safeguard human Is psychology free of value judgments? participants? Psychologists'values influence their choice of research The APA ethics code outlines standards for safeguarding topics, their theories and observations, their labels for human participants'well-being, including obtaining their behavior, and their professional advice. informed consent and debriefing them later. Applications of psychology's principles have been used mainly in the service of humanity. Multiple-Choice Questions 1. Which of the following is more likely to be emphasized 3. Which ethical principle requires that at the end of the in individualist cultures than in collectivist cultures? study participants be told about the true purpose of the a. Gender differences research? b. Shared goals a. Institutional Review Board approval c. Personal achievement b. Informed consent d. Cooperation with the group c. Confidentiality e. Preservation of tradition d. Debriefing e. Protection from physical harm 2. What must a researcher do to fulfill the ethical principle of informed consent? 4. Which of the following beliefs would most likely be held a. Keep information about participants confidential. by an individual in a collectivist culture? b. Allow participants to choose whether to take part. a. Children should be encouraged to focus on personal c. Protect participants from potential harm. goals and aspirations. d. Provide participants with a pre-experimental b. Children should be encouraged to develop explanation of the study. harmonious relationships. e. Provide participants with a post-experimental c. It is important to be competitive and assertive in explanation of the study. order to get ahead in life. d. If you want something done well, you should do it yourself. e. It is important to satisfy personal needs before those of the larger community. Practice FRQs 1. Provide three reasons why nonhuman animals are 2. Researchers interested in studying stress gave 150 high sometimes used in psychological research. school seniors a velY difficult math exam. After the test, the researchers measured stress by examining physiological Answer changes with extensive medical testing that included drawing blood samples. 1 point: Some researchers use nonhuman animals because they are interested in understanding the animals themselves, What ethical principle governs what students must be including their thinking and behaviors. told before the research takes place? What should the potential participants be told? 1 point: Others use nonhuman animals to reduce the complexity that is part of human research. They hope to What ethical principle governs the appropriate use of understand principles that may be similar to those that the results of the medical testing? What would that govern human psychological phenomena. principle say about the use of these results? (8 points) 1 point: Researchers also study nonhuman animals in order to apply the findings in ways that will help both humans and the other animals themselves.  Frequently Asked Questions About Psychology Mod u Ie 8 71 Unit II Beview Key Terms and Concepts to Remember hindsight bias, p. 31 correlation coefficient, p. 46 descriptive statistics, p. 57 critical thinking, p. 35 scatterplot, p. 46 mode, p. 57 theory, p. 38 illusory correlation, p. 50 mean, p. 57 hypothesis, p. 38 experiment, p. 51 median, p. 57 operational definition, p. 39 experimental group, p. 51 skewed distribution, p. 58 replication, p. 39 control group, p. 51 range, p. 58 case study, p. 40 random assignment, p. 51 standard deviation, p. 58 naturalistic observation, p. 40 double-blind procedure, p. 51 normal curve, p. 59 survey, p. 42 placebo [pluh-SEE-bol effect, p. 52 inferential statistics, p. 60 sampling bias, p. 43 independent variable, p. 52 statistical significance, p. 60 population, p. 43 confounding variable, p. 52 culture, p. 65 random sample, p. 43 dependent variable, p. 52 informed consent, p. 68 correlation, p. 46 validity, p. 53 debriefing, p. 68 Ap® Exam Practice Questions Multiple-Choice Questions 1. Which descriptive statistic would a researcher use to 3. When a distribution of scores is skewed, which of the describe how close a student's SAT score is to a school's following is the most representative measure of central average SAT score? tendency? a. Correlation coefficient a. Inference b. Mean b. Standard deviation c. Median c. Mean d. Standard deviation d. Median e. Range e. Correlation coefficient 2. Which method should a psychology researcher use if 4. A researcher wants to conduct an experiment to determine she is interested in testing whether a specific reward in a if eating a cookie before class each day improves student classroom situation causes students to behave better? grades. He uses two psychology classes for the experiment, a. Case study providing daily cookies to one and nothing to the other. b. Experiment At the end of the semester, the researcher compares the c. Survey final grades of students in the two classes. What is the d. Naturalistic observation independent variable for this experiment? e. Correlation a. The students in the class that received cookies b. The presence or absence of cookies c. The students in the class that didn't receive cookies d. The period of the day that the two classes met e. Semester grades 72 Unit II Research Methods: Thinking Critically With Psychological Science 5. Which of the following represents naturalistic observation? 9. Which of the following is a positive correlation? a. Researchers watch and record how elementary school a. As study time decreases, students achieve lower children interact on the playground. grades. b. Researchers bring participants into a laboratory to see b. As levels of self-esteem decline, levels of depression how they respond to a puzzle with no solution. increase. c. A principal looks at the relationship between the c. People who exercise regularly are less likely to be number of student absences and their grades. obese. d. A social worker visits a family home and gives d. Gas mileage decreases as vehicle weight increases. feedback on family interactions. e. Repeatedly shooting free throws in basketball is e. Two grandparents sit in the front row to watch their associated with a smaller percentage of missed free grandson's first piano recital. throws. 6. "Monday morning quarterbacks" rarely act surprised 10. Why is random assignment of participants to groups an about the outcome of weekend football games. This important aspect of a properly designed experiment? tendency to believe they knew how the game would turn a. If the participants are randomly assigned, the out is best explained by which psychological principle? researcher can assume that the people in each of the a. Overconfidence groups are pretty similar. b. Hindsight bias b. By randomly assigning participants, the researcher c. Intuition knows that whatever is learned from the experiment d. Illusory correlation will also be true for the population from which the e. Random sampling participants were selected. 7. Researchers studying gender have found that c. Random assignment keeps expectations from influencing the results of the experiment. a. there are more similarities than differences between d. If participants are not randomly assigned, it is the genders. impossible to replicate the experiment. b. there are no significant cognitive differences between e. Statistical analysis cannot be performed on an the genders. experiment if random assignment is not used. c. there are no significant emotional differences between the genders. 11. Which of the following demonstrates the need for d. research tools are not capable of determining if there psychological science? are true differences or not. a. Psychology's methods are unlike those of any other e. differences between the genders are becoming more science. pronounced over time. b. Psychological experiments are less valuable without S. A journalism student is writing an article about her psychological science. school's new cell-phone policy, and she'd like to c. Our intuitions about human thinking and behavior interview a random sample of students. Which of the are not always accurate. following is the best example of a random sample? d. Intuition does not provide correct answers unless it is applied through the scientific method. a. The writer arrives at school early and interviews e. Psychological science research is superior to that of the first five students who come through the main other sciences like biology and physics. entrance. b. The writer pulls the names of five students from a hat 12. Which of the following is a potential problem with case that contains all students' names. She interviews the studies? five selected students. a. They provide too much detail and the researcher is c. The writer asks her teacher if she can distribute a likely to lose track of the most important facts. brief survey to the students in her AP®Psychology b. They are generally too expensive to be economical. class. c. They may be misleading because they don't fairly d. The writer passes out brief surveys to 50 students in represent other cases. the hall and uses the 18 surveys returned to her as d. They are technically difficult and most researchers the basis of her article. don't have the skills to do them properly. e. The writer asks the principal for the names of 10 e. The dependent variable is difficult to operationally students who have had their cell phones confiscated define in a case study. for a day for violating the policy. She interviews these 10 students.  Frequently Asked Questions About Psychology Mad u Ie 8 73 13. Which of the following is not an ethical principle 14. There is a negative correlation between TV watching and regarding research on humans? grades. What can we conclude from this research finding? a. Researchers must protect participants from needless a. We can conclude that a student who watches a lot of harm and discomfort. TV is likely to have lower grades. b. Participants must take part in the study on a b. We can conclude that TV watching leads to lower voluntary basis. grades. c. Personal information about individual participants c. We can conclude that TV watching leads to higher must be kept confidential. grades. d. Research studies must be fully explained to d. We can conclude that the grades shldents get impact participants when the study is completed. their TV watching habits. e. Participants should always be informed of the e. We can conclude that this is an illusory correlation. hypothesis of the study before they agree to 15. A scientist's willingness to admit that she is wrong is an participate. example of a. curiosity. d. skepticism. b. intelligence. e. cynicism. c. humility. Free- Response Questions 1. Sam Greene noticed an ad for an Internet dating service 1 point: Sam would need to operationally define what is that claimed more people who used its service are in meant by use of the Internet service, possibly including a long-term relationships than people who didn't. Sam, precise number of visits to the website or time spent on the a good critical thinker, knows this isn't enough to claim website. The phrase long-tenn relationship would also need that the service causes people to find long-term love and an operational definition, possibly by the number of months wants to create an experiment to investigate. Use the together or a formal commitment (like engagement or mar- following terms to describe an experiment that would riage). ~ Page 39 support or dispute the ad's claim. 1 point: In Sam's study, the use of the online dating service Hypothesis is the independent variable. ~ Page 52 Random sample 1 point: The number of long-term relationships is the dependent variable. ~ Page 52 Random assignment 1 point: Sam will need to calculate statistical significance for Operational definitions the experimental findings. In order to claim support for the Independent variable hypothesis, the results need to show that there is no more Dependent variable than a 5 percent chance the findings are due to chance. Inferential statistics ~ Page 60 Rubric for Free-Response Question 1 1 point: The hypothesis in this context is that the Internet dating service causes (or leads to) long-term relationships. ~ Page 38 1 point: Since the population of interest for this study should be people who are looking for long-term relationships, selecting a random sample of adults seeking relationships would help assure that the conclusions could be fairly generalized to the dating public. ~ Page 43 1 point: In this case, participants should be randomly assigned to use of the Internet service (the experimental group) or not (the control group). ~ Page 51 74 Unit II Research Methods: Thinking Critically With Psychological Science 2. Dr. Tabor wanted to investigate the relationship between 3. Find at least five problems in the research study sleep and levels of alertness during a class for American described below. Identify the problem and explain how it university students. She gave surveys to 150 is a violation of accepted research principles. college freshmen in her introduction to psychology Dr. Pauling wanted to study whether vitamin C affects course, asking them to report how many hours they slept self-esteem. She recruited 200 respondents who arrived each night during a two-week period. Dr. Tabor also had at her lab. Participants were told that they were about the participants rate their level of alertness on a scale of to participate in a harmless research study, and they 1 to 10, with 10 being the most alert each day at the end needed to sign a release form in case there were harmful of class. Dr. Tabor compared the average amount of sleep side effects from the vitamin C pills. The 100 participants reported by each participant along with their average on the right side of the room received a pill with vitamin score on the alertness scale on a graph to examine the C and the others on the left received a pill with caffeine. data. The resulting correlation coefficient for Dr. Tabor's She then gave each group a list of questions to answer data was +0.89. Define each of the following terms and in essay form about their self-esteem. When they were explain how each concept might apply to Dr. Tabor's finished, she thanked the participants and sent them research. on their way. After compiling her findings, Dr. Pauling Random sample printed the names of the students and their results in the Scatterplot campus newspaper so they would know what the results of the test were. Dr. Pauling concluded that vitamin C Wording effects had a positive affect on self-esteem. Positive correlation (5 points) Operational definition (10 points) Multiple-choice self-tests and more may be found at www.worthpublishers.com/MyersAP2e