Textbook Assignment 4.1-4.4 PDF

4.1 Technological innovations Development of Transoceanic Travel and Trade The trade routes bought items, these items were silk, spices and tea to the Mediterranean by the way of the Red Sea (in the 16th century). Soon Europeans became involved in the Indian Ocean trade with the main goal being wea...

4.1 Technological innovations Development of Transoceanic Travel and Trade The trade routes bought items, these items were silk, spices and tea to the Mediterranean by the way of the Red Sea (in the 16th century). Soon Europeans became involved in the Indian Ocean trade with the main goal being wealth and new converts. However they face competition from the Middle eastern traders kingdoms. Omani European rivalry: ​ One reason for Christopher Columbus’s search for a new route to india. ​ These voyages linked people across the Atlantic Ocean ​ From America: sugar, tobacco, and rum ​ From Africa: enslaved people ​ From Asia: silk spices and Rhubarb This trade transformed Spain, Portugal, Great Britain, France and Holland into Maritime empires. Much of this trade was conducted by men, however in Southeast Asia, Europeans did most of their business with women. Women traditionally handled markets, money-changing services in those cultures. Classical, Islamic, and Asian Technology Western Europe was aware of traditions of sailing that went back to the classical Greeks, this didn’t stop them from developing naval technology. Combining old knowledge of the stars for navigation with the cultural interactions resulting from different trade routes. Most of these new ideas were developed by Islamic and Asian scholars and sailors. ​ AL-Andalus was a place where Islamic ideas diffused into Europe. Prince Henry (the Navigator and leading European figure, Portuguese ruler) never sailed far enough to lose sight of the land, he strongly supported exploration, financed expeditions along the coast of Africa Atlantic. Portugal explored Africa coastal communities and kingdoms before other European powers. Advances in ideas: ​ Newton’s discovery of gravitation increased knowledge of the tides, resulting in sailors could reliably predict the depth of the water near the shore would be decreasing, thereby exposing dangerous rocks. ​ Cartography: an astronomical chart (map of stars and galaxies), this guided ships before the compass was introduced and the use of the sky to determine destination. The use of telescopes to help create these charts (in 1609), this  practice ended at the start of the 7th century. Now they are divided into grids to locate specific constellations and astronomical objects. -​ Ancient Astronomers in Babylonia and Mesopotamia had created star charts (earliest 2nd millennium B.C.E).Charts by Chinese astronomers (date back to the 5th century B.C.E). Advances in Equipment: ​ Ships moved adroitly, aided by a new type of rudder (imported from china). Improved Muslim navigators in the 12 century, allowed for them to determine how far north or south they resigned from the equator. ​ The compass: primary direction-finding device for navigation. Works either with a magnet or a gyroscope, in which a wheel or disk is mounted to spin rapidly around an axis in many directions. Invented in China and discovered by marites in the 12th century by China and Europe. ​ The lateen sail or ship sail (triangle shape), used by Arab sailors and in the Indian ocean, significantly affected medieval navigation and trade. -​ Allowed sailors to travel successfully into large bodies of water, thus expanding trade routes. Long-term Results: Combining navigation techniques was invented in Europe with other areas of the world having rapid expansion of exploration and global trade. The Eurasia world unaffected by rapid increase in Global trade was Polynesia, since it was far removed from such. The introduction to gunpowder, (another Chinese invention) aided Europeans in conquests, soon enough sea pirates also used such technology, particularly Dutch pirates known as sea beggars. ​ North Africa and trading cities: Islam spread rapidly because of the growth of the Abbasid empire (centered in Baghdad) and the activities of Muslim merchants. The interactions of various cultures inside and outside of Africa brought extensive trade and new technologies to the continent. ​ Navigation techniques spread throughout the 17th century. Russia’s Tsar Peter the Great visited western Europe in 1697 to observe military and naval technology. His interest in European tech led him to hire technicians from Germany and elsewhere to build Russia’s military and naval power. 4.4 Maritime Empires, Link Regions European nations: -​ Driven by largely politicals -​ Religious -​ Economic rivalries -​ Established new Maritime empires -​ Administered trading posts in Asia and Africa and colonies in the Americas. -​ Asian goods traded: silver and gold for silk, spices, while newly developed colonial economies (america) depend on agricultural American plantations: -​ Relied on existing labor systems Introduced to new labor systems such as Indentured servants: arrangements through which individuals were considered as property to be bought and sold. -​ The appalling shock of free people being seized and enslaved is captured in the griot (storyteller) song of west Africa Wolof people. -​ The growth of the plantation economy increased the demand for enslaved Africans in the Americas, leading to a significant demographic, social and cultural changes State-Building and Empire Expansion Trading posts in Africa and Asia: The targets of European conquest during the late 15th century were Certain regions of East and West Africa. The Portuguese ruler (prince Henry) was keenly interested in navigational technology. ​ He financed expeditions along the African Atlantic coast and around the Cape of good hope. ​ Cooperation of local rulers (first Portuguese then other European areas), those individuals set up trading posts along the Atlantic coast. The local rulers traded enslaved people to the European in exchange for gunpowder, cannons, and giving those Coast governments a military advantage when battling neighboring villages. -​ African city-states grew more wealthy due to selling enslaved individuals to Europeans  -​ In Particular the Kingdom of Dahomey grew measly because it raided other villages to gain more people to enslave and sold them to European merchants. African States: In central West Africa, Portuguese explorers, traders, and missionaries made inroads into the Kongo and Benin kingdoms. ​ Benin Artisans incorporated images of the European “intruder” into their carvings and sculptures. Artwork from societies that bear signs of European and African cultural influences as early as the 16th century. However, during the expansion of Maritime trading networks supported the growth of some African states such as the Asante Empire and the Kingdom of the Kongo. Their trade led to an increase in their influence. In 1498, Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama invaded the Swahili City-states of East Africa. -​ Most were thriving commercial centers in the Indian Ocean trade. -​ THe Portuguese overtook trade in Kilwa, Mombasa, and other city states by sending heavily armed ships and building fortresses. This takeover threw the region into a devastating decline. Japan: ​ Expanded trade networks like the Europeans, however with sharp restrictions. ​ Tolerated the first Portuguese and Dutch traders and missionaries in the 16th century. ​ Thousands converted to Christianity, some of those individuals were intolerant of other faiths, resulting in Buddhist shrines being destroyed. In response to this action the government banned Christian worship services. ​ Over the next 40 years, Japan persecuted christians and limited foreign influence. In 1630, nearly all foreigners banned most foreign books and prohibited Japanese people from traveling abroad. ​ For more than two centuries, Japan was partially isolated from the rest of the world, only allowing Dutch merchants to live on Nagasaki harbor (small island). ​ The belief that the Japanese went through with the “uncouth” Europeans became popular. China: Ming dynasty (after Zheng He in the 15th century): -​ Tried to limit outside influence by restricting trade. Limits on trade were eventually reversed and China resumed its important role in global trade. -​ Prohibited private foreign trade, destroyed some dockyards, limited the size of ships that could be built, and began reconstructing the Great Wall.  -​ These changes were part of the broader pattern of conservatism under the Ming to undo the influence of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty before them. -​ Reemphasized the importance of Confucianism and reinvigorated the traditional exam system. European Rivalries on Five Continents ​ The British East india Company began a commercial relationship with the Mughal Empire in the 17th century ​ Portugal controlled a coastal trading post in the southwest state of Goa ​ France controlled Ponicherry, a city in the southwestern state of Tamil Nadu. During the mid-18th century, France and Great Britain along with respective allies, competed for power on five continents in the Seven Years’ war. Britain’s Victory in 1763 drove the French out of India and the Portuguese remained in India until driven away in the mid-20th century. British in India: ​ British ports in India were typically established by those by Europeans and elsewhere. The East India Company (EIC) established small forts on the coasts that focused solely on making a profit through trade. limited by the power of India's Mughal Empire and the ETC controlled posts with very little territory. ​ ETC began to expand, took advantage of the tensions between muslims and Hindus in India then increased its political power through treaties with local rulers. -​ With the help of the sepoys (european-trained Indian private forces), the ETC moved inland, spreading its influence. -​ Ultimately, Britain intervened in India politically and militarily to such an extent that it controlled much of the subcontinent. British Global trade: ​ Set up trading posts in West Africa, where the Asante Empire limited their impact. ​ Trading posts in Africa, India, and elsewhere paved the way for globalization. Each post became a node, an intersection of multiple points serving as a trade center for goods from many parts of the world. Mike’s Stuff:  4.3: Columbian Exchange (1450-1800) Diseases and Catastrophe Before Columbus’ arrival, the Eastern and Western hemispheres had never interacted with one another. Because of this, most indigenous Americans died due to diseases they had never experienced brought by the Europeans as opposed to the Europeans themselves (which will be known as the Great Dying). Spanish conquistadors brought with them smallpox, which spread through the respiratory system. Once they were face-to-face with the native people, they infected them with this deadly disease. With colonists came rats, insects, and other disease-spreading animals who brought measles, influenza, and malaria along with smallpox. Through disease alone, native populations fell 50%, with some individual societies losing almost 90% of their population due to disease. Animals and Food ​ Not only did the Eurpoeans bring disease with them, they also brought food and animals. Most indigenous Americans had very little meat in their diet, but once the Europeans brought pigs and cows with them, meat became a big part of the American diet. Another animal brought from Europe was the horse, which dramatically transformed the lives of the Native Americans in the North American planes. They stopped their agricultural practices in favor of hunting bison on horseback, providing them a massive surplus of food. Due to the horses as well, several different tribes developed competition and conflict between each other, for whoever had the most horses had the most power. Europeans also brought back food from the Americas, such as maize, cacao, potatoes, tomatoes, and beans. Potatoes were so influential in Europe that they are often thought to be native to regions such as Ireland, and aided in the massive population growth in the 16th and 17th centuries. Cash Crops and Forced Labor The coerced arrival of enslaved Africans allowed for biological and demographic changes, such as the African people bringing okra and rice with them. Much of the development and transportation of cash crops like tobacco was possible due to forced labor. The Lure of Sugar ​ While the Spanish colonies focused on the extraction and distribution of silver, Portugal focused on sugarcane production in Brazil. Unfortunately for them, much of the native population of laborers had either died from disease or escaped into the jungles, so the Portuguese began to collect laborers from Congo and the Swahili Coast. Eventually, Spain saw their success, and Spanish production of cash crops soon eclipsed their silver market. Slavery Due to how immensely popular sugar was in Europe, Portugal increased its involvement with the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade to keep up with demand. About 90% of slaves transported across the Atlantic went to Brazil and other Portuguese colonies, to the point that more Africans were going there than Europeans. Enslaved Africans were forced to work in horrible conditions, engaging in back-breaking labor every day. The sugarcane plantations of Brazil, often called engenhos, or “engines” in Portuguese, caused the deaths of 5-10% of the labor force per year. African Presence in the Americas ​ The enslaved Africans brought to the Americas still retained aspects of their culture, leading to the spread of their traditions, languages, and food across the Americas through the African Diaspora (spread of Africans) ​ Languages ​ Since captured Africans were contained together with several different groups, all speaking different languages, communication was practically impossible. But after some time in the Americas, many African people combined the languages from the colonizers (french, english, spanish, portuguese) with bits of their west african languages, creating what is broadly known as creole. Creole mostly developed in Central and South America, since that is where the majority of enslaved Africans were being taken. Music ​ The syncopated rhythms of traditional African music were brought with them to the Americas, eventually developing into jazz, gospel, blues, and several other genres. A big reason they maintained traditional music was to help them endure long workdays, as well as communicate with each other to plot escapes. Food ​ As well as bringing rice and okra, Africans brought knowledge of food preparation, leading to the creation of foods such as gumbo, popular in the Southern United States. African culture had a profound impact on modern American life. Environmental and Demographic Impact ​ The Europeans had a massive impact on the American land, with their heavier focus on tree cutting and agriculture than the natives. This led to deforestation and soil depletion becoming large problems in the Americas. My 4.4 bit (Atlantic Slave Trade) Capture and Shipment of Slaves Once African leaders realized that participating in the slave trade would be beneficial, they began to raid nearby settlements for people to sell. They even began selling people on the lower rungs of the social ladder of their own communities, such as servants and criminals. ​ However, once King Afonso of Kongo realized that slave trades were not controllable, he began to oppose them. He did not want to give up society's elite to slavery, and wanted to make sure that he could control all parts of trade with Europe, which was not possible using slave trade. The Horrors of the Journey Once Africans were captured, they were taken to West African barracoons, or “slave castles”, where they would be held until pickup. They would then be taken onto dank cargo ships, traveling six weeks across the Atlantic Ocean with little food, water, or room. This became known as the Middle Passage, being the middle part of the captives’ journey. From the early 1500s to the mid 1800s, about 10-15% of captives would die before reaching their destination. Demographic, Social, and Cultural Changes The transportation of African captives to the Americas dramatically altered the populations of both places. The slave trade led to a century-long decline in the African population. This distribution also affected status, with there being both slaves and free people. Family groupings were also disrupted, with families often being broken up due to more people wanting men as slaves. Indian Ocean Slave Trade While there was the large Atlantic Ocean Slave Trade, with West and Central Africa trading slaves with Europe and the Americas, therewas also an ongoing slave trade across the Indian Ocean. This trade was mainly between East Africa and North Africa, the Middle East, and India, reaching its peak in the 18th and 19th centuries. Slaves who ended up in these parts of the world were usually seaport and shipping workers, as well as household servants and even soldiers. They had greater opportunity to develop communities due to being in cities, and had certain rights that came with being in an Islamic community, such as being allowed to marry. 4.2 Overview: ​ As navigation technology advanced, Italy was able to form a monopoly over trade between Europe & Asia. This monopoly drove several states to set out across the sea in an attempt to find a new route to Asia. The Role of States in Maritime Exploration ★​ European states expanded as a means to consolidate power -​ Conversion was also a driving factor of expansion among all states ★​ Conquest brought wealth via taxes -​ It would also lead to an influx of valuable material goods [ex. Silver] -​ Territorial rivalries would form as a result ★​ Voyages were often taken by states rather than individuals -​ Mainly due to the high price associated with it ★​ State’s wealth was measured in how much silver & gold they had this gave way to the rise of mercantilism -​ The idea of buying as little from other states as possible to maximize profits from trade [requires heavy government involvement] Expansion of European Maritime Exploration ★​ In Portugal, both the interests of the state & voyagers were aligned -​ This ignited interest in maritime exploration across Europe Portuguese expansion into Africa & India was primarily led by… Prince Henry the Navigator The first European Monarch to engage in seafarer expeditions. He searched for a passage to the east & Africa. Ended up trading slaves via sea, replacing the land-based slave trade Bartholomew Diaz Sailed around the southern tip of Africa, but halted traveling east out of fear of mutiny Vasco Da Gama Would travel further east than Diaz & find himself on India’s shore, which he would claim as Portugal’s. These ports would be vital in Portugal's trading presence in the Indian Ocean Portugal in South East & East Asia ★​ Alfonso de Albuquerque [Portuguese admiral & former governor in India] won a short & brutal conflict with Arabs & set up a factory at Malacca in the early 6th century. ★​ China halted exploration a little under a century before the Portuguese’s arrival -​ By this time, Portugal’s superior ships & weapons had allowed them to gain control of Indian & African coastal ports ★​ Others would soon follow them into China to convert the Chinese people [primarily carried out by Roman Catholic missionaries] to little success Trading Post Empire ★​ For the Portuguese, this looked like an expanse of forts along coastal areas which were ideal for the spice trade as a means of monopolization -​ Mainly seen in India ★​ Based on smaller outposts rather than extensive regions of controlled land ★​ Required the purchase of permits to conduct trade in the area which brought in more cash Portuguese Vulnerability ★​ They were a small state that lacked the necessary ships & workers to operate such a large empire ★​ Merchants often would do their own thing separate from the government  ★​ Corruption began to sprout within the government ★​ The Dutch & English began to rise & rival Portugal [17th cent.] -​ The Dutch would take Malacca & attempt to monopolize the spice trade -​ The English would set their sights on India & drove them out of the South East ★​ The Portuguese would travel to Japan [early 16th cent.] to trade & spread religion -​ Would eventually be kicked out for the latter & resulting in the ban of Christianity across Japan Spanish in the Philippines ★​ The Portuguese were the first in Europe to reach India by going around the southern tip of Africa ★​ However, the Spanish were the first to circumnavigate the world via the ocean [performed by Ferdinand Magellan in the 15th cent.] ★​ Spain annexed the Philippines in 1521 upon the arrival of Megellan’s ships -​ Military conflict between the two as a result -​ Many in the Philippines would convert to Christianity once under Spanish control because of missionaries The Lure of Riches ★​ European explorers sought to find another route to Asia in hopes of newfound riches, though they would not find much to start -​ Spain saw little to nothing from the expeditions for the first 2 decades -​ The English sponsored expeditions in the late 14th century, the lackluster results of which discouraged them from further exploration ★​ This would all change once the Spanish came across the Aztecs & Incas in the Americas -​ Gave a greater insensitivity to exploration since riches had a greater guarantee -​ Later, this caused the value of enslavement of the native people for labor in agriculture Trade Across the Pacific ★​ China traded silk, spices, & other luxury goods from silver from the West -​ Silver trade would flourish as a result -​ This would commonly occur in Manila -​ Would be brought in by the Spanish via galleons [large, heavily armed vessels] ★​ Silver would become a very valuable commodity across the globe -​ It would also become China’s main form of currency  ★​ Spain’s rivals [the French, Dutch, & English] would claim territory in the Americas & search for a northwest passage -​ A route through or around North America to East Asia French Exploration [15-16th cent.] ★​ Sparked by the search for the northwest passage -​ Jacques Cartier would set out in 1535 in search, but wouldn’t the passage. So, he settled for claiming what is now a part of Canada for France ★​ They would find in later expeditions that there was great wealth in the America’s via valuable resources -​ This meant further exploration into Asia was not needed ★​ Mainly profited from furs ★​ In 1608, Quebec was established ★​ Both French traders & priests would disperse throughout the land -​ The traders searched for furs -​ The priests searched for converts ★​ In 1608, La Salle [a French trader] would explore the Great Lakes, the Mississippi, & the Gulf of Mexico. All of which he would claim as France’s ★​ The French opted to trade with natives for furs rather than control & demand like the Spanish & English. This would result in… -​ Better trade relations -​ Slower settlement growth English Exploration ★​ Similarly driven by the search for the northwest passage ★​ John Cabot, an explorer sent by the English crown, arrived in 1497 & claimed land in the America’s ★​ However, they had a hard time defending against the Spanish Armada -​ Though, “sea dogs” [English pirates] would sometimes be able to fend them off] ★​ This would change in 1588 when the English somehow managed to knock a third of the Spanish Armada -​ With this victory, they declared themselves a major naval power -​ They’d also begin truly competing for land & resources in the America’s ★​ In the early 16th century, they would establish a colony in Virginia ★​ In 1607, 60 Englishmen would arrive in what has come to be known as Jamestown -​ Which was named after the English monarch of the time -​ The English’s first successful settlement -​ One of the United States first settlements [second to the Spanish’s in New Mexico & Florida] Dutch Exploration ★​ In 1609, the Dutch sent Henry Hudson in, you guessed it, the search of the northwest passage -​ He would sail along what now is known as the Hudson River to no avail ★​ Though, Hudson would claim the Hudson River Valley as well as New Amsterdam [New York] which brought the Dutch great wealth 4.4 [pg 221-223] Europeans in the America’s Mexico ★​ Cortés’s forces were able to conquer the Aztecs [with the help of those conquered by the Aztecs] by 1521. This would mark the establishment of New Spain, as a result… -​ The Aztec treasures would be melted down & the gold would be sent back East -​ Tenochtitlan would be torn down & Mexico City would be built on its ruins ★​ In the Andes, the Incas would be attacked by Francisco Pizzaro & his forces -​ They were told to fill a room with gold if they wished to be spare [to which they complied] -​ But in 1533, Pizzaro would go on to kill their ruler, Atahualpa, anyway -​ The Spanish’s conquest of the Inca was completed by 1573 Spain vs. Portugal ★​ The Treaty of Tordesillas divided the Americas between the two -​ Portugal would claim Brazil -​ Spain would get land west of the Mediterranean & the rest of the America’s ★​ In addition, Spain would also explore areas of North America & claim a fort in Florida in 1565 [this was conducted by explorer Pedro Menedez] -​ Spain was unable to hold all of America under its control due to the Dutch, English, & other states France vs. Britain ★​ As they fought for dominance, the British began to move into former Dutch territory [New York] where they’d come across the Iroquois who had an ongoing trading conflict with the French  ★​ The Iroquois would fight alongside the British for sometime before eventually signing a peace treaty with the French [the Great Peace of Montreal, 1701] & flip sides ★​ The British drove the French out of Canada during what came to be known as the French & Indian War Europeans in the Indian Ocean Trade ★​ The Portugueses… -​ Had a superior naval force -​ Religious zeal -​ A will to profit from new & diverse trading products [Ex. Gujarati-made cloth in western India, agricultural products from Java, & spices from all around] ★​ They used their military to strong-arm these regions for resources through the help of some other states in 1509 ★​ Despite this, Indian Ocean Trade went on as it normally would, with transport fees & all Spain & Gold in the America’s ★​ Initiated by Colombu’s belief that Hispaniola [Haiti & the Dominican Republic] was full of gold ★​ Though the Caribbean was sparse in gold, so Columbus returned with the native Tainos people, enslaved, & hauled them back to Spain ★​ Encomienda [a means to gain access to resources such as gold] was established by Spain in the Americas in the early 15th century ★​ Encomenderos were landowners who instilled a system similar to Europe's old manorial system, it would become infamous for its brutality ★​ Conquistadors would gain land ownership in the Americas in return for their service. There they would develop the hacienda system when they’d grow agricultural products of said land, tended through coerced labor ★​ In contrast to English settlements, it was common for Conquistadors to marry native women Silver ★​ Although some wealth came from gold, a greater amount came from silver ★​ Mexico & Peru’s economies would be revived through silver ★​ By the end of the 16th century, cities in this region [Mexico, Peru, the Andes, etc] would become thriving centers of silver mining ★​ Indigenous people would often be the ones mining due to the hazards