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1.1 Introduction to Organizational Behaviour (OB) 1.2 Personality as a Core Concept in OB 1.3 Personality Traits of Relevance at the Workplace 1.4 Emotional Intelligence as a Significant Personality Attribute 1.5 Relevance of the Johari Window to Behaviour at Work 1.6 Significance of Perception to t...

1.1 Introduction to Organizational Behaviour (OB) 1.2 Personality as a Core Concept in OB 1.3 Personality Traits of Relevance at the Workplace 1.4 Emotional Intelligence as a Significant Personality Attribute 1.5 Relevance of the Johari Window to Behaviour at Work 1.6 Significance of Perception to the Study of OB 1.7 Person Perception and Attribution Theory 1.8 Impression Management as a Perceptual Process 1.9 Significance of Attitudes to the Study of Human Behaviour in Organizations 1.10 Formation of Attitudes 1.11 Key Employee Attitudes 1.12 The Cognitive Dissonance Theory of Attitudes 1.13 Concept and Techniques of Motivation 1.14 Content Theories of Motivation 1.15 Process Theories of Motivation 1.16 The Job Characteristics Model 1.1 Introduction to Organizational Behaviour (OB) Organizational Behaviour (OB) is a scientific discipline with a theoretical backing. It is related to but different from Human Resource Management, Organizational Development, and Organizational Theory. The subject has a broad canvas and applies to the behaviour of people in all types of organizations – business, government, schools, and service organizations. The term ‘Organizational Behaviour’ is made up of two words: ‘Organization’ and ‘Behaviour’. “An organization is a consciously coordinated social unit that functions on a relatively continuous basis, is driven by formal rules, and comprises of two or more individuals working towards a common goal. It is a system of consciously coordinated activities of two or more persons deliberately constructed and reconstructed to seek specific goals” (Robbins, 1998). ‘Behaviour’ refers to all activities of living beings and is a result of our thoughts and emotions. According to Newstrom & Davis (1993), ‘Organizational Behaviour is an applied science that deals with the study and application of knowledge about how people – as individuals and as groups – act within organizations. It strives to identify ways in which people can act more effectively.” The key elements of OB are (See Fig. 1): The organization / its mission / task People viz. the internal social system The structure viz. the hierarchy, the formal relationships Technology viz. infrastructure The external environment All these elements have a reciprocal influence on each other. Fig. 1: The Key Elements of OB There are four goals of OB are to describe, understand, predict, and manage behaviour at work. The ultimate aim of OB is the setting up of conditions to improve organizations so as to maximize human potential and bring organizational effectiveness. The basic unit of study of organizational behaviour is the individual; the next level of study is the group and eventually the macro aspects of the organization such as organizational culture (See Fig. 2). Fig. 2: The Focus of OB (Source: Robbins, 1998) OB is a multidisciplinary field. The discipline of Psychology has contributed to its subject matter in a very big way. Hence, Organizational Behaviour is often referred to as ‘Organizational Psychology’. Other allied disciplines are: Sociology, Social Psychology, and Anthroplogy, and Political Science. In the 21st Century work environment, there are numerous challenges and opportunities for OB practitioners such as: Responding to Globalization Managing Workforce Diversity Improving Quality and Productivity (TQM) Responding to the Labor Shortage Improving Customer Service Improving People Skills Empowering People (from management control to empowerment) Handling the Transition from Stability to Flexibility Coping with “Temporariness” Innovation and Change Helping Employees Balance Work and Family Improving Ethical Behaviour Pandemic-induced Changes in the Nature of Work However, in every challenge lies an opportunity and the study of organizational behaviour is required because it enables managers to: Improve people skills. Learn to cope with rapid and ongoing change. Create an ethically healthy work climate. 1.2 Personality as a Core Concept in OB Personality refers to the unique and relatively stable patterns of behaviour, thoughts, and emotions shown by individuals. It is the sum total of a person’s physiological and biological attributes. The word is derived from the Greek word ‘persona’ meaning a mask worn by Greek theatre artists. Personality is reflected in our interactions with others. Three factors determine the formation of personality viz. heredity; environment; and situational factors. The study of personality is important to the understanding of workplace behaviour. It is a core concept in the study of organizational behaviour because: Its study helps understand both productive and counterproductive work behaviours. Personality has a role to play in workplace adjustment. It is important while recruiting people because personality-organization fit is crucial to employee performance. Personality can be measured through self-report questionnaires (such as DISC, Myers-Briggs Type Indicator or MBTI) or projective techniques (Thematic Apperception Test or TAT). 1.3 Personality Traits of Relevance at the Workplace Self Esteem Self Monitoring Locus of Control The Big Five which include: Openness to experience (the opposite of narrow-mindedness): Are you curious, intelligent, imaginative, and independent? Conscientiousness (the opposite of unreliable): Responsible, prudent (sensible n careful), self-control, persistent, planful, achievement oriented? Extroversion (Introversion is the opposite): Sociable, assertive, talkative, ambitious, energetic? Agreeableness (the opposite is un-cooperativeness): Good natured, cooperative, trusting, likeable, friendly? Neuroticism (emotional stability is the opposite): Secure, calm, low anxiety, low emotionality? Are you prone to negative emotions? According to Barrick & Mount (1991), Conscientiousness is related to success in all aspects of work in all occupations. Extroversion and agreeableness are important in jobs requiring a high degree of interpersonal work. Type A (workaholic, task oriented) and Type B (easy going, people oriented) personalities are important in the study of OB. Three types of personalities have maladaptive behaviour patterns and are particularly difficult to deal with viz. Machiavellian, Narcissistic, and Psychopathic personalities. These are referred to as the Dark Triad. 1.4 Emotional Intelligence as a Significant Personality Attribute Emotional intelligence defined as inter-personal intelligence is an all encompassing aspect of personality. Goleman (1995) says, “Emotional Quotient is the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well within ourselves and in our relationships.” The various components of EI are depicted in the Fig. 3. Fig. 3: Components of Emotional Intelligence 1.5 Relevance of the Johari Window to Behaviour at Work OB practitioners are hired by companies to give human-relations training, also known as sensitivity training. One theoretical model applied in such workshops is the Johari Window. This is undertaken to help employees perceive each other better. Through an expansion of the open self quadrant, it helps reduce conflicts, fosters communication and leads to personality development. Feedback from others and self-disclosure are an integral part of this model given by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham in 1955 (See Fig. 4). By encouraging healthy self-disclosure and sensitive feedback, stronger and more effective teams can be built. Fig. 4: The Johari Window (Source: Luft, 1984) 1.6 Significance of Perception to the Study of OB Perception is the process by which individuals identify, organize and interpret information in order to understand their sensory impressions. It involves recognition of the sensory stimuli and the responses of the individual to these stimuli. Sensation and perception are complementary to each other. Both the processes work together to help us identify and create meaning from the environmental stimuli. Without sensation, perception will not be possible, except for people with extra sensory perception. And without perception, our sensations will remain unknown to us due to the absence of mental processing of these stimuli. Personal characteristics that affect perception include a person's attitudes, personality, motives, interests, past experiences, and expectations. There are some factors that influence the target such as: novelty, motion, sounds, size, background, proximity, similarity, etc. Errors and biases distorting perception at work: Perceptual errors occur when the individuals use some shortcuts in judging the behaviour of others or use some positive or negative assumptions and beliefs while making decisions. Some of these are: Fundamental attribution error: The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when judging about the behaviour of others. Self-serving bias: The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors. Selective perception: Selectively interpreting what one sees on the basis of one’s interests, background, experience and attitudes. Contrast effect: Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that are affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics. Stereotyping: Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs. Halo effect: The tendency of judging the person entirely on the basis of a single positive trait. Similarity error: Assuming that people who are similar to us (in terms of background, interests, and hobbies) will behave like us. Recency Effect: When the most recent information influences our judgment, even though we have a whole lot of other information on the person. Horns Effect: Based on one negative quality, we assume that the person is not a good worker. Shortcuts in perception are relevant to the following: Employment interview Performance evaluation Making impressions Ethnic profiling Profiling: A form of stereotyping in which a group of individuals is singled out typically on the basis of race or ethnicity or for intensive enquiry, scrutinizing or investigation. Since perception is an important variable in determining individual behaviour and organizational behaviour in turn, it needs to be managed effectively. 1.7 Person Perception and Attribution Theory Attribution Theory is about individuals making judgments about others. When individuals observe behaviour, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused. This depends on three factors: Distinctiveness Consensus Consistency Internally caused behaviours (Dispositional attribution) are those that are believed to be under the personal control of the individual. Externally controlled behaviours (Situational attribution) are thought to be resulting from outside causes; the person is seen as having forced into the behaviour by the situation. Distinctiveness is when the individual displays different behaviours in different situations. Consensus is when everybody faced with a similar situation responds in the same way. Consistency is when the person responds in the same way over time. Fig. 5: Internal and External Attribution (Source: upsc-management.blogspot.com) 1.8 Impression Management as a Perceptual Process It is a goal-directed conscious or unconscious attempt to influence the perceptions of other people about oneself, a person, object or event by regulating and controlling information during social interactions. Impression Management is about “Self-presentation”: The tendency to present oneself in a manner that is socially desirable by controlling &constructing perceptions. It is a cognitive process and has implications for: The validity of performance appraisals (depending upon the extent to which the evaluator is manipulated into giving a positive rating) Success in organizations: It is a pragmatic political tool to climb up the ladder of success There are two components of the process of impression management: 1. Impression Motivation: In an employment situation, employees are motivated to control how their boss perceives them. The degree of this motivation will depend on: The relevance the impressions have to individual goals The value of these goals The discrepancy between the image one would like others to hold and the image one believes others already hold 2. Impression Construction: The specific type of impression people want to make and how they go about doing it Two Types of Impression Management Constructive: helps in the formation of self identity Strategic: helps in the attainment of some interpersonal goal Employee Impression Management Techniques or Strategies include: Demotion-preventive Strategies Promotion-enhancing Strategies 1.9 Significance of Attitudes to the Study of Human Behaviour in Organizations Attitudes are understood as the predisposition of an individual or a group of individuals to judge objects, ideas, people and situations. It is the way an individual or a group expresses the positive or negative assessment about someone or something. Some important characteristics of attitudes include: Attitudes are learned. Attitudes endure, unless something major happens. Attitudes are held by individuals, irrespective of their status and intelligence. Attitudes can fall anywhere along a continuum ranging from very favourable to very unfavourable. Attitudes involve a complex organization of beliefs, feelings, and dispositions to judge certain actions. Attitudes can be defined as learned tendencies to respond to an object or class of objects in a consistently favourable or unfavourable manner. These are fundamental factors that have important implications in determining our perceptions and actions in relation to all aspects of our social environment. Composition of Attitudes: In general, the attitudes are composed of three components: Cognitive component: This component of the attitude refers to the beliefs, opinions, knowledge or information held by an individual Affective component: This is the emotional component of the individual relating to moods, feelings, emotions and sentiments about an idea, person or thing Behavioural component: This relates to the behaviour of the individual based on the cognitive and affective component 1.10 Formation of Attitudes The process of attitude formation takes place in the following ways: (i) Learning attitudes by Association: A positive attitude towards the subject is learned through positive association between a teacher and a student in school. In other words, students often develop a liking for a particular subject because of the teacher. (ii) Learning attitudes by being Rewarded or Punished: If an individual is praised for showing a particular attitude, chances are high that she/he will develop that attitude further. For example, if a teenager does yogasanas regularly and gets the honour of being Miss Good Health in her school, she may develop a positive attitude towards yoga and health in general. (iii) Learning attitudes through modelling (observing others): We learn attitudes through association and through reward and punishment. For example, children form a respectful attitude towards elders by observing that their parents show respect for elders and are appreciated for it. (iv) Learning attitudes through group or cultural norms: Learning attitudes through group or cultural norms is through association, reward or punishment and modelling. For example, offering money, sweets, fruit and flowers in a place of worship is a normative behaviour in some religions. When individuals see that such behaviour is shown by others and is socially approved, they develop a positive attitude towards such behaviour. (v) Learning through exposure to information: With the huge amount of information that is being provided through media, both positive and negative attitudes are being formed. By reading the biographies of self-actualised person, an individual may develop a positive attitude towards hard work. To sum up, the attitudes of the individual are learned and not inherited. Some of the important sources for acquiring attitudes include the following: Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Observational Learning Social Comparison Genetic factors Direct experience with the object Family and peer groups Neighbourhood 1.11 Key Employee Attitudes Some important attitudes related to the job are: Job Satisfaction – an individual’s general attitude towards his/her job; a collection of positive and negative feelings that an individual has towards his/her job. Job Involvement- the degree to which a person identifies with his/her job; actively participates in it and considers his/her performance important to self-worth. Organizational Commitment - the degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in the organization. Three key areas where attitudes can make a big difference to employee experience and the bottom-line: Performance and productivity Employee retention Customer satisfaction How to manage a negative employee attitude? Start by identifying the negative employee, their actions and the impact they’re having on the workplace. Talk to the employee. Show them the impact of their attitude, and make it clear negativity won’t be tolerated. Support the employee to change their attitude. Give them an opportunity to explain their problems, encourage them to find a solution and provide help if needed. 1.12 The Cognitive Dissonance Theory of Attitudes Cognitive dissonance theory can be used to describe the linkage between attitudes and behaviour. It explains a situation of mental discomfort experienced by an individual because of the conflicting beliefs, attitudes or behaviours. The term cognitive dissonance explains any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behaviour and attitudes. Fig. 6: Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Source: semanticscholar.org) Cognitive dissonance causes an individual to experience feelings of uneasiness and tension and in such a situation, the individual seeks a stable state and wants to reduce the dissonance or incompatibility. Some examples include rejecting the new information that contradicts with the existing beliefs or giving explanation or justification for the beliefs or behaviours causing the dissonance. The desire to reduce dissonance would be determined by: The importance of the elements creating the dissonance The degree of influence the individual believes he or she has over the elements The reward that may be involved in dissonance There are three ways to eliminate dissonance: Reduce the importance of the dissonant beliefs, Add more consonant beliefs that outweigh the dissonant beliefs, or Change the dissonant beliefs so that they are no longer inconsistent. Emotional Dissonance: In the workplace, emotional dissonance is the conflict between emotions experienced by the employee and those required by the organization. Emotional dissonance develops when there is an internal conflict in an employee caused by a difference in emotions. This conflict becomes evident when an employee is dealing with negative emotions, but needs to keep them hidden during work to show a positive face to customers. To conclude, it can be stated that the study of attitudes is important in Organizational Behaviour as it influences perception, satisfaction, commitment and other job related factors. 1.13 Concept and Techniques of Motivation Motivation is the word derived from the word ‘motive’ which means needs, desires, wants or drives within the individuals. It is the process of stimulating people to actions to accomplish the goals. In the work goal context the psychological factor stimulating the people’s behaviour can be desire for money, success, recognition, job-satisfaction, team work, etc. Types of Motivation: Motivation can be of different types, depending on what motivates an individual and whether the motivation arises from within or outside the individual. Positive/ Incentive Motivation: Is based on reward. The workers are offered incentives for achieving the desired goals and the workers try to improve their performance willingly. Positive motivation is achieved by the co-operation of employees and they have a feeling of happiness. Negative Motivation: Is based on force or fear. Fear causes the employees to act in a certain way. If they do not work accordingly, they may be punished. The fear acts as a push mechanism. The employees do not cooperate willingly; rather they want to avoid the punishment. Intrinsic Motivation: The motivation that comes from within the individual Extrinsic Motivation: Comes from doing things or factors outside the individual Techniques of Motivation in Organizations: Several techniques are adopted by organizations to motivate employees, depending on the requirements of the employees as well as of the organization. Job rotation – the lateral movement of the employees from one job to another in the organization to reduce the monotony of the job, to make the employees more versatile and to give them wider experiences in the organization. Job enlargement – increasing the scope of a job by adding more duties and responsibilities, at the same level. Job enrichment – making the job more challenging, stimulating and interesting which requires more skills and abilities on the part of the employees. Providing meaningful feedback – providing meaningful and specific feedback motivates the employees and increases their contribution in the organization. Employee involvement – a system that allows the employees to give their inputs in decision making process of the organization. Increase transparency – Increasing transparency in the organization’s processes and procedures helps to increase motivation among the employees as they can give feedback and ask questions. 1.14 Content Theories of Motivation Content theories are about the ‘what’ of motivation. Some of these are discussed below: I. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory Maslow's theory states that our actions are motivated by certain physiological needs. These needs can be represented in the form of a pyramid, with the most basic needs at the bottom and more complex needs at the top. The various needs considered in Maslow’s theory include the following: Physiological Needs: These are concerned with food, clothing, shelter, sex, need for oxygen. Unless these needs are satisfied, no other needs motivate an individual. Safety Needs: These are the needs to be secure and free from physical danger and other threats such as losing a job. Social or Belongingness Needs: Need to have meaningful relationships with others. In an organization, workers may form informal groups for the exchange of ideas. Esteem or Ego Needs: These are concerned with self-respect, self-confidence, feeling of being unique, recognition etc. Satisfaction of these needs brings confidence, power, control and prestige. Self-actualization Needs: The need to maximize one’s potential. This is related to the development of intrinsic capabilities which lead people to seek situations that can utilize their potential. II. Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene Theory According to Herzberg, there are two types of conditions: Hygiene Factors/Maintenance Factors: These do not motivate employees by their presence but their absence dissatisfies them. When adequate in a job, people will not be dissatisfied. For example, company policy, technical supervision, inter-personal relations, salary, job security etc. Motivational Factors: These operate to build strong motivation but their absence does not dissatisfy the employees. For example, achievement, recognition, advancement, work itself, possibilities of personal growth, responsibility etc. The basic premise is that lack of dissatisfaction at work is not equal to satisfaction. III. Mc Gregor’s Theory X and Y Theory X and Theory Y are based on two distinct views of human beings: Theory X is based on the traditional approach to human behaviour. The average human beings inherently dislike work and will try to avoid it, whenever possible. As the employees are lazy, they must be controlled, coerced, threatened with punishment to achieve goals, to which they are indifferent. Average employees will try to avoid responsibility and seek formal directions whenever possible, because they have relatively little ambition. Most workers place security above all other factors associated with work. Theory Y makes the following assumptions about people: The average human being does not inherently dislike work. He can view work as natural or enjoyable as rest or play. Employees will exercise self-direction and self-control in the attainment of the objectives to which they are committed. Given proper working conditions, average person can learn to accept and even to seek responsibility. Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement. All the people are capable of making innovative and creative decisions and decision making is not the sole province of the people in management positions. IV. McClelland’s Theory of Social Needs viz. achievement, affiliation, and power 1.15 Process Theories of Motivation Process theories are about the ‘how’ of motivation. Two of these are discussed below: I. Vroom’s Expectancy (VIE) Theory of Motivation Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory of motivation is a process theory of motivation. It says that an individual’s motivation is affected by their expectations about the future. Motivation is a function of valence, instrumentality and expectancy. Effort (Motivation) = Valence x Instrumentality x Expectancy Valued outcomes mean rewards Valence is the attractiveness of a reward Expectancy is the expectation that the effort will lead to the first level outcome viz. Productivity (performance) Instrumentality is the expectation that the first level outcome will lead to second level outcomes (rewards) Specifically, Vroom says that an individual’s motivation is affected by how much they value any reward associated with an action (Valence), how much they believe that by putting effort into something they will be able to generate good results (Expectancy) and how much they believe that generating good results will result in a reward (Instrumentality). It’s important to note that rewards could be intrinsic or extrinsic.  What Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation means for leaders and organizations: Provide rewards that individuals value Set achievable objectives for individuals Provide promised rewards when they are earned II. Adams' Equity Theory Adams' Equity Theory of Employee Motivation (also known as the Equity Theory of Motivation) posits that employees are motivated when they believe they are receiving a fair reward for their work. This theory was developed by J. Stacey Adams in 1963 and has since been used to explain employee behavior and motivation. Adams' Equity Theory suggests that employees compare their own inputs and outputs (e.g., effort and rewards) to those of others, and when there is a perceived imbalance, they will act to restore equity. It states that employees are motivated to keep their own perceived fairness levels in balance with those around them. This means that if they feel they are being treated unfairly, they will be less motivated to work hard. 1.16 Applications of Motivation 1. Goal Setting: MBO (Management by Objectives) 2. Reward System for High Performance OB Modification 3. Job Design includes: Job Rotation Job Enlargement Job Enrichment Job Characteristics Model 4. Use of Empowerment MBO (Management by Objectives) works from “bottom up” as well as from “top down”. A program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress given by Peter Drucker. The Job Characteristics Model (job diagnostic model) given by Hackman & Oldham (1975) Helps managers understand & build into the workplace, conditions that will inspire people. It includes: 5 core job dimensions viz. Skill variety Task identity Task significance Autonomy Feedback These lead to 3 critical psychological states viz. Meaningfulness Sense of responsibility Knowledge of results (feedback resulting in a positive state of mind). These in turn lead work effectiveness in terms of: Internal work motivation Job satisfaction High quality work performance Lowered rate of absenteeism & turnover Terminal Questions: Throw light on the key elements in the ‘OB Model’. Why is the study of ‘Personality’ a major part of OB as a discipline? Explain the relevance of Attribution Theory of perception to the workplace. Give four applications of ‘motivation’ in the context of OB. In the light of the theory of cognitive dissonance, how should an individual deal with conflicting attitudes?