Test 2 Study Guide Summary!.docx

Test 2 Study Guide: Terms and Things to Know MODULE 6: REWARD SYSTEMS Endorphins vs. opiates How and where they have their effects in the brain. Summary! Endorphins are endogenous opiates (produced naturally by the body and stored in the pituitary gland). They are used to reduce pain (primarily) by...

Test 2 Study Guide: Terms and Things to Know MODULE 6: REWARD SYSTEMS Endorphins vs. opiates How and where they have their effects in the brain. Summary! Endorphins are endogenous opiates (produced naturally by the body and stored in the pituitary gland). They are used to reduce pain (primarily) by inhibiting pain signals. They MAY produce a feeling similar to euphoria similar to manufactured (exogenous) opiates but to a far lesser extent. They bind on the outside of the golgi complex. Because of endorphins, the body naturally has receptors for exogenous opiates as well. However, these manufactured opiates have multiple binding sites (inside and outside golgi complex) and have a greater impact on the body. Dopamine, on the other hand, is released as a training chemical (not a reward chemical) and is thought to be associated with stimuli that are related with rewards. Therefore, they lead to reward seeking Dopamine Spikes and… Learning What happens to the spikes before vs after learning has occurred Prediction error (positive, negative, no error) Magnitude of spikes and prediction error Neuron firing rates SUMMARY! (Dopamine and… learning, prediction error, magnitude of spikes, and neuron firing rates) LEARNING: Dopamine is thought to be related to the desire for a reward Therefore, before learning has occurred, there will be no predictive spike of dopamine and a large spike of dopamine following attainment of that reward After learning occurs, there will be a predictive spike in dopamine that is “predicting” the reward one will receive PREDICTION ERROR AND FIRING RATES: Related to learning, there can be prediction errors A positive prediction error = a pleasant surprise! No prediction has occurred (this happens before learning) There is no prediction error when the prediction spike and reward-related spike are the same A negative prediction error occurs when the prediction spike (desire/want) is larger than the reward related (reward/like) spike In some cases of negative prediction error, there can even be a dip in a baseline firing rate when a prediction spike is much larger than a reward-related spike MAGNITUDE OF SPIKES: The magnitude of a spike (prediction vs reward) matters! And is what creates the discrepancy between prediction and reward – you can still be getting a reward, but if it less than the magnitude of the prediction, then you will continue to chase the dopamine (increased desire and less liking) Over time, prediction error may remain the same or increase, while expectation is lowered (leading to negative prediction error) Addiction Summary! Addictive substances have a distorted reward value! Learning increases prediction spike and decreases reward delivery spike Most essentially, addiction is seeking of dopamine following a negative prediction error (e.g., prediction outweighing experience; desire outweighing the pleasure derived from experience) Tolerance makes all rewards less valuable With learning, cues associated with the reward will add to prediction spike In withdrawal, there are aversive side effects when you stop seeking reward stimulus MODULE 7: DISCRIMINATION AND PREJUDICE Operant and classical influences on prejudice Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Two-Factor Theory of Prejudice Types of conditioning in relation to prejudice First-order conditioning: Classical conditioning with paired traumatic, painful, or “bad” experience Higher-order conditioning: Person is paired with an already established, though not neutral (e.g., guns) aversive elicitor Sensory preconditioning: “neutral” stimuli (e.g., foods, hairstyles, clothing, culture) are sufficiently paired with learned aversive stimuli More on Two-Factor Theory of Prejudice Stimulus generalization in prejudice and discrimination Classically conditioned fear response Social learning theory Observational learning 🡪 vicarious conditioning for associated fear response The Dunn and Askew (2013) study and conditioned fear responses Demonstrated that social learning/vicarious learning can occur through those you know as well as strangers Overall: Prejudicial learning occurs through direct, observational, and verbal modalities Who is more likely to be prejudice? – People who deny having prejudicial attitudes Salience of the targets of prejudice and discrimination – More likely to be targeted for the same behavior as someone in an “in-group” due to salience in a group Decreasing Prejudice (how… using what principals) Latent inhibition - pre-exposure to positive associations before negative learning can occur Extinction - through pairing CS with a neutral stimulus by increasing exposure until the association is broken (note: this approach is easier said than done & would require a lot) Appetitive pairings – associate different people with positive experiences MODULE 8: SELF-REGULATION AND CONTROL: SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY Self-regulation theory Self-Control (and the ability to inhibit impulses) Ego depletion (with examples) (include interactions with biology) How to counteract ego depletion. Conservation hypothesis. SUMMARY! Self-regulation theory (Self-Control and the ability to inhibit impulses; Ego depletion (with examples - include interactions with biology); How to counteract ego depletion; conservation hypothesis) Self-regulation theory is a system of conscious personal management that involves the process of guiding one’s own thoughts, behaviors, and feelings to reach goals This theory includes: Standards, Motivation, Monitoring, and Willpower In theory, these components should lead one to self-control (e.g., what enables you to override your base impulses for immediate gratification) Self-control is a form of self-management that requires energy! (whether that, theoretically, is effort for cognitive processing or actual glucose levels) It involves the capacity to alter your responding and bring them in line with ideals, values, morals, social expectations, etc. to support your long term goals It is vulnerable to deterioration over time from repeated exertion (similar to a muscle). As you continue to use self-control (and therefore cognitive resources) subsequent attempts get worse This leads to ego depletion! Lots of elements of self-control are happening all the time: controlling thoughts, managing emotions, overcoming impulses, focusing attention, guiding behavior by utilizing decision making, etc. Interpersonally, this might look like impression management, kindness, keeping a level head in conflict, and – interracial interactions (trying to stop yourself from saying something that could be misconstrued) Biologically, evolution has constructed people to conserve their resources for when they truly need them! This is exemplified by the idea that to do better on a test – you should drink sugary lemonade to counter ego depletion and restore glucose levels Counteracting ego depletion could be done in a number of ways, including: Humor and laughter, implementation intentions (contingency planning), social goals, and exercise/practice in self control as a construct (theoretically – if you can practice self-control in one domain of life, it should generalize more easily to others) The Conservation Hypothesis, then, is the idea that the severity of impairment one experiences (based on ego depletion) depends on whether the person expects further challenges When people expect they will need to exert self-control later, they will curtail their performance earlier in the day to conserve their cognitive resources Self-Determination Theory and intrinsic motivation. What are the basic needs in terms of SDT? SUMMARY! Self-determination theory (what it is and its components) Self-determination theory, most essentially, is a theory of intrinsic motivation! Follows the idea that external motivation may work in the short term, but intrinsic motivation works long term If people don’t have extrinsic rewards, they will attribute the work they are doing to internal motivation (e.g., why you shouldn’t give children money for chores, grades, etc.) We infer we must not like what we are doing if the context suggests we are only doing it for external rewards Intrinsic motivation: doing something because it is personally fun, challenging, interesting, etc. Components include: 1) autonomy, 2) competence, and 3) relatedness as intrinsic needs that are cross-cultural If people have these needs satisfied, they will be more satisfied, happy, productive, etc. When resources to meet needs are not available, people will turn to compensatory behaviors which may be maladaptive and further damage chances of fulfillment (e.g., apathetic, bored, disengaged, alienated, etc.) The steam whistle hypothesis Examples of conscious influences on behavior Know the relationship between conscious thought, unconscious motives, and behavior SUMMARY! (Relationship between conscious thought, unconscious motives, and behavior; steam whistle, examples of conscious influences on behaviors) Although behavior is initially non-conscious motivated, its expression is a matter of conscious control Steam whistle hypothesis demonstrates this because although the whistle is not driving the train, it is related to underlying drives. Therefore, it is related but only tangentially. In this way, conscious control was an evolutionary adaptation Examples of conscious influences on behavior include utilizing mental simulation/rehearsal, implementation intentions Generally, mental practice COMBINED with physical practice is found to be the most effective Mental rehearsal is most helpful early in learning MODULE 9: DECISION MAKING MODELS Know Tversky and Kahneman’s Prospect theory Risk/loss aversion/taking (see below) Tversky and Kahneman’s “S curve” SUMMARY! (Tversky and Kahneman’s Prospect theory, s-curve, and risk/loss aversion) Tversky and Kahneman’s Prospect theory states that although people have the capacity to make rational choices – they often do not (regardless of intelligence level) One example is through framing effects S-curve is the phenomena that more gains will not lead to more satisfaction, and more losses won’t lead to more discouragement – each of these level out at a certain point Risk aversion is related to gains. People do not want to take risks for additional gains when they are guaranteed some gain already. They are risk adverse. (Keep the smaller gain). Risk seeking is related to losses. People will risk losing more if they have already loss to some degree. (Risk the bigger loss). Be able to describe and discuss Tversky and Kahneman’s principals of: Certainty Loss aversion Risk aversion Risk seeking Relative positioning Small probabilities MORE DEFINITIONS! Loss aversion is a general tendency related to people’s weighing losses more heavily than gains An example would include rejecting paid overtime opportunities because you will be taxed more. You will also make more money – but the loss is weighed more heavily than the gain Certainty is when someone is willing to sacrifice income to achieve more certainty (speaks to being risk averse for gains) Relative positioning is when even if someone achieves some gain, if it is smaller relative to those around them, it will not be interpreted as a gain. It is all about your position relative to others, not progress you may be making individually. Small probabilities is when people tend to discount the possibility of low probability events. This tendency can result in people making super risky choices (because the risk for loss seems so impossible) MODULE 10: ATTRIBUTIONS, HEURISTICS, AND BIASES Attribution Theory What is an attribution? Typical and atypical shifts Weiner (1985) attribution theory and domains (you do not need to know the flow charts). Know what the article by Thompson and O’Sullivan, 2017 was about Attributions that go with different emotions Carol Dweck and “self-theories” or “theories of intelligence” as relates to motivation/attributions. SUMMARY! An attribution is the reasoning someone attributes (ha!) to their own behaviors and others behaviors Attribution theory explains why people make the decision they do (their reasoning judgements) Related to shifts… Typical shifts are related to internal/personal attributions. If something happened because of an internal attribution, it will continue to occur on the same path. Success leads to more success and failure leads to more failure. Atypical shifts are related to external/situational attributions. If something happened because it was outside of your control, then the next occurrence is up to chance. Related to the gambler’s fallacy – that a win should follow a loss Also related to negative recency effects – that heads should follow tails on a coin toss Weiner’s attribution theory and domains… Most essentially: Judgements made around their dimensions (e.g., locus, stability, controllability) will predict how you think about someone, emotional responses, and your behaviors Carol Dweck and “self-theories” or “theories of intelligence” and their relation to motivation/attributions It is NOT intelligence, but what you attribute your intelligence to that will impact performance when faced with obstacles (1) With the understanding of performance based on innate qualities, people would not try harder when faced with obstacles. This is because they see intelligence as internal, stable, and uncontrollable (fixed mindset) (2) With the understanding of performance based on efforts, people would try harder when faced with obstacles. This is because they see effort as external, unstable, and controllable (growth mindset) Heuristics and Biases Know and be able to discuss the concept of “Bounded Rationality” What is the difference between an attribution, a heuristic, and an attitude? SUMMARY! Bounded rationality is the idea that we have the capacity to be rational but do not have the time/energy to do this, so we use shortcuts. This idea acknowledged limitations of rational choice as a model of decision making. Even experts make decision making errors because they do not have endless resources! Instead of perfect rationality, one researcher suggested satisficing. The idea of “good enough” decision making related to cognitive limitations And use heuristic rules as a way of explaining these systematic errors part of “good enough” processing Differences in key terms include: An attitude is a causal attribution for yours or others behaviors A heuristic is a short cut for good enough decision making and is used to fill gaps in our interpretations Attitudes are more stable and related to disposition of liking some- thing, person, etc. Know all of the heuristics covered in lecture and on the power points Be able to discuss the relationship between psychiatric diagnoses and various heuristics SUMMARY! Heuristics! Availability Heuristic is the idea that the easier something is to call into your mind, the more it will impact your judgment EX: dying in a plane crash is dangerous because when this happens, we see it on the news endlessly. But actually – driving in a car is much more dangerous. EX: do more words start with r or have r as their third letter? The answer is r as the third letter, but people will say it is start with r because they can more readily call up examples of that option. This creates an illusory correlation. For instance, planes are not actually more dangerous OR people don’t eat more ice cream in the summer because it is warm. CLINICALLY: Relates to diagnostic overshadowing – when a salient diagnostic feature obscures clinically important (less salient) diagnostic features EX: Mood disorders being underdiagnosed in individuals with intellectual disabilities because the ID frequently overshadows mood-related symptoms EX: Clinicians over-likely to diagnose BPD when there is NSSI, even though a lot of these individuals may not express other symptoms of BPD. And may lead to neglect of BPD patients who do not engage in NSSI Anchoring and adjustment heuristic is the idea that people are overly influenced by initial information and fail to adjust their first impressions with new information EX: Participants anchored by 8 vs. 1 in long string multiplication of the same numbers CLINICALLY: Relates to psychological masquerade and premature closure Psychological masquerade refers to the tendency to ignore or underweight potential medical diagnoses for a preference toward psychological problems (hooked on what they are familiar with and are unable to make appropriate adjustments) Premature closure which is the rapid diagnosis or hasty generalization as a downstream effect of anchoring (e.g., ADHD case for oral exams and confirmatory bias) Representativeness heuristic is the idea that people estimate the probability of an occurrence by comparing it with a mental prototype. This leads to insensitivity to prior probability estimates of outcomes (e.g., base rate neglect) EX: people judging someone as an engineer based on traits presented, rather than on available statistics that there are more lawyers than engineers present Base rate neglect, then, is when you forget the original statistic in favor of prototypical knowledge CLINICALLY: related to representativeness (prototypes) and base rate neglect The example of base rate neglect and schizophrenia and the tendency for clinicians to diagnose schizophrenia when presented with bizarre symptoms despite schizophrenia being present in under 1% of the population The tendency for psychologists to estimate diagnostic probability based on a prototype of a disorder – this can lead to missing other important clinical considerations Actor/observer effect is the idea that when a person experiences something negative, they are more likely to blame the situation or circumstances. When something negative happens to someone else – however – they will attribute blame to the individual’s choices, behaviors, etc. This is different from the fundamental attribution error which relates solely to other individuals and the tendency to find internal rather than external attributions for their behaviors. Especially when you lack context. Recognition Heuristic is the idea that people have a preference for name recognition over logic EX: Who will win the soccer match? Which has a bigger population? Why do organizations like the Myers Briggs? Affect Heuristic is the idea that our moods inform our decisions CLINICALLY: When clinicians have a more negative reaction to clients, they are more likely to see those clients as impaired and give them a more severe diagnosis EX: BPD patients often elicit more negative reactions from providers and therefore tend to be treated with less empathy and care than those with other disorders (e.g., depression, schizophrenia, etc.) Hindsight bias is the tendency to perceive an outcome as more predictable after it occurs than before Can relate to memory distortions and remembering things incorrectly to relate more to your now established perspective. We have a tendency to make the past consistent with our present moment. CLINICALLY: Some therapists will remember symptoms consistent with a patient’s diagnosis that were never present Regression Fallacy is the idea that people regress toward the mean! CLINICALLY: Therapists may misattribute improvement or deterioration in patients progress to the therapy rather than to naturally occurring changes over time Confirmation bias is the tendency to accept information that aligns with one’s belief and deny/dismiss/distort information that does not CLINICALLY: This includes selective inclusion of confirmatory information which can perpetuate false clinical impressions from other more legitimate alternatives Also relates to test selection in assessment and research study design and findings Essay Questions FROM MODULE SIX: REWARD SYSTEMS: Brain Hacking; talk about operant conditioning, reinforcement schedules, dopamine prediction errors and cortisol release (in relation to operant conditioning) in order to explain addiction to your phone. Coders have learned how conditioning works, how dopamine spikes work, and how cortisol works They learned how to capitalize on these phenomena to get you addicted to your phone This leads to our phones training us to pick up our phones (because they produce dopamine spike) When we don’t get what we want – we continue to scroll because we are seeking the dopamine spike Will use variable ratio reinforcement schedules with dumping likes, etc. (And remember, aggression is dopaminergic as well) FROM MODULE SEVEN: DISCRIMINATION AND PREJUDICE: Think of an example of a person who exhibits racial prejudice or gender, religious, or sexual bigotry. Describe how this person’s prejudice may have developed using a combination of classical and operant conditioning. Be sure to discuss the conditioned fear response and: Observational learning (vicarious conditioning) First order conditioning Higher-order conditioning. Sensory preconditioning. Stimulus generalization (from the one to the many/group). Operant conditioning (positive and negative punishment and reinforcement) FROM MODULE EIGHT: SELF-REGULATION AND CONTROL: SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY: There are various ways to take conscious control over your behavior.  Please describe and provide an example of each of the following: Implementation intentions Anticipated regret Mental Practice/Mental Simulation Transparency and Accountability Implementation intentions are essentially contingency plans. For example, if my client reacts in one way to my news, we can spend the rest of the session doing this. If they respond in another way, I have another option for that as well. Anticipated regret changes decision processes toward greater vigilance and information gathering. It promotes risk avoidance and loss avoidance and can make people choose options that are justified more easily. For example, reductions in sexual behavior because of anticipated regret toward getting an STD, social consequences, etc. Mental practice/simulation is related to running through an event in your head over and over again. For example, an athlete imagining how they are going to swing a bat or shot a basketball. This can even apply to increased voting or test taking behaviors. Lastly, transparency and accountability related to the idea that behavior is likely to change if you know you are going to have to explain your actions. For example, this can make leaders more responsive to the interest of their group when they know their group is aware of decisions they are making. MODULE NINE: DECISION MAKING MODELS: Looking at Tversky and Kahneman’s theory, please describe each of the following principles and how they relate to decision making. Please present an example to make your point. Certainty Loss aversion Relative positioning Small probabilities Certainty is related to being risk averse when it comes to potential gains. It is the preference for certainty related to gains even if it means you will sacrifice income to achieve that certainty. For example, if someone is offered 1000 dollars vs an 80% chance of winning 1500 dollars, they will take the 1000. Loss aversion is related to the tendency to give losses more weight than gains. For example, If you win 100 dollars and lose 80, you might see it as a loss in terms of how satisfied you are even though you made money. This is because you focus on the loss more than the fact that you earned money. Relative Positioning is related to the fact that people tend to be most interested in gains and losses relative to others rather than their own financial progress. For example, you may be living in the nicest house you have ever lived in, but if it is the least nice on the block – you won’t be happy about it. Small probabilities relate to the tendency to overlook low-probability events. This can, in theory, lead to very risky decision making. For example, if there is a 99% chance I win this bet, I can bet all my money because there is no way I will lose. MODULE 10: ATTRIBUTIONS, HEURISTICS, AND BIASES: Think of the article by Thompson and O’Sullivan, 2017. Assume that you are doing couple’s therapy and one member of the couple engaged in infidelity. Please use Weiner’s domains (the original 3 plus intentionality) to describe the attributions made by the person who was cheated on that would make them least likely to forgive and move beyond the transgression. Thompson and O’Sullivan, 2017: Understanding Variations in Judgements of Infidelity: All about attributions for another’s infidelity and whether that relates to if someone will forgive the other or not Judgments of a partners’ real-life behavior were harsher than were judgments of one’s own behavior. The actor-observer discrepancy was largest for the technology/online and emotional/affectionate behaviors. This is – my behaviors are explained by external factors, your behaviors are explained by intrinsic factors (for negative behaviors) A partner’s behavior was most likely to be viewed as reflecting internal (you did this because of your character, and you don’t love me) Stable (you will always be this way) controllable (you did this because you had a choice) intentional causes (you chose to do this to hurt me on purpose) These attributions would be seen as unforgivable (with example of cheating on a partner) From slide on examples of attribution theory from couple’s therapy: Preoccupied partner: “Is my partner avoiding validating me and withholding affection because there is something wrong with me? Or something that is going on in the situation? Can it change? Or will this feel awful forever and I should leave?” Initially, attributions are internal (there is something wrong with him or me or both), it is personality based and won’t change, it doesn’t matter what I do, my partner is being cruel on purpose, all of our interactions will be colored by this). After feedback in therapy? It’s not me… it’s our attachment styles. I’m feeling crazy because of an attachment style that can change. Unstable; since the style can change, the pattern can change Controllable; I can learn to work with this and shift our relationship dynamics My partner is not doing this on purpose to hurt me; it is something that happened to him/her/ze in childhood This behavior will not apply across all situations; this won’t happen in less intense situations that are activity based. Change in attribution allows people to give others the chance to reinvent themselves MODULE 10: ATTRIBUTIONS, HEURISTICS, AND BIASES: Assume that a clinician misdiagnoses a patient as having Borderline PD after uncovering the client’s ongoing non-suicidal self-injury behaviors. Please discuss the possible causes of this misdiagnosis using what you know about attributions and heuristics. Discuss each of the following (in paragraph format... no bullets please) Representativeness Confirmation bias Affect heuristic Recognition heuristic Premature Closure