Tema 13. Emociones - Fundamentos Biológicos de la Conducta PDF

# Fundamentos Biológicos de la Conducta ## Tema 13. Emociones ### Índice - Esquema - Ideas clave - 13.1. Introducción y objetivos - 13.2. Emoción como mecanismo adaptativo - 13.3. Neurobiología del miedo - 13.4. Neurobiología del amor - 13.5. Emociones sociales - 13.6. Refer...

# Fundamentos Biológicos de la Conducta ## Tema 13. Emociones ### Índice - Esquema - Ideas clave - 13.1. Introducción y objetivos - 13.2. Emoción como mecanismo adaptativo - 13.3. Neurobiología del miedo - 13.4. Neurobiología del amor - 13.5. Emociones sociales - 13.6. Referencias bibliográficas - A fondo - El pequeño Albert - Las emociones y los infantes - Test ### Esquema This is a diagram with a hierarchy of emotions: - **EMOCIÓN** - **EL MIEDO** - Sistema límbico - La amígdala - El condicionamiento del miedo - **EL AMOR** - Amor fraterno - Amor romántico - Celos patológicos - **EMOCIONES SOCIALES** - Empatía - Vergüenza - Envidia ### Ideas clave #### 13.1. Introducción y objetivos This tema studies emotions and processes related to it. It will clarify the processing of emotions in the brain, the behavior related to these processes, and brain areas involved. **Objectives**: - Understand the concept of emotion as an adaptive process and the history of different approaches to its psychobiological study. - Understand the role of the amygdala and the cortex in emotional processing, specifically regarding fear. - Study the biology of love. - Learn about social emotions. #### 13.2. Emoción como mecanismo adaptativo Darwin and other scientists, including Freud, already postulated that the brain played a fundamental role in the expression of emotions. The theory of emotion by William James Lange proposes that we experience emotions as a response to the physiological changes of our body, meaning we feel sad because we cry and not the other way around. However, different emotions present the same ambiguous bodily responses; therefore, the label we apply to them depends on the situation we are in and the cognitive assessment we make. In 1927, the Cannon-Barden theory stated that the emotional experience can occur independently of the emotional expression. Cannon started to claim that the thalamus was relevant when feeling emotions: In his theory, the activation or deactivation of the thalamus, regardless of other bodily signs, would activate or deactivate our emotional substrate. Currently, thanks to new neuroscience and modern neuroimaging techniques, we have more knowledge on this topic. #### 13.3. Neurobiología del miedo Fear is a kind of "alarm" that activates our organism when we are in a dangerous or threatening situation. In the past few decades, the study of the neurobiology of fear has focused on a specific brain structure: the amygdala. In this section we can learn more about this structure and how it interacts with other brain areas to activate fear responses. **The Amygdala** The amygdala is a structure located in the temporal lobe. It is composed of different nuclei, each connected to each other, and in turn, to various areas of the brain. * **The lateral nucleus** is a key location in the input of sensory information to the amygdala. This information comes through a direct pathway from the thalamus and also through an indirect pathway from the thalamus that goes through the cortex. * **The basolateral nucleus** projects to the cortex, basal ganglia and the hippocampus, providing a path for modulation of emotion and memory storage and retrieval in these structures. * **The central nucleus** projects outside the amygdala to the autonomic nervous system (ANS) where it triggers physiological expressions such as stress activation and hormone release, and to the motor centers where it triggers the expression of behavioural responses like freezing and startle. Different studies suggest that the autonomic and endocrine responses controlled by the central nucleus are part of the responses responsible for the harmful effects of chronic stress. The amygdala plays an important role in emotional processing as it determines the valence (positive or negative) of emotional events we are exposed to. Information comes from the thalamus that processes the stimulus rapidly, and the amygdala evaluates its valence, producing an immediate and involuntary emotional response. The activation of this type of emotional processing occurs before we are aware of what is causing us to react (it is a preattentive process). However, the thalamus also sends information to the primary cortex, and subsequently to the amygdala. In this case, it is a conscious and more individualized analysis of the stimulus. The amygdala is also involved in acquiring the fear response. Lesions in the amygdala block learned and innate responses to fearful stimuli. They are unable to learn fear CRs (fearful memory or implicit memory that takes place in the amygdala). Also, the destruction or bilateral ablation of the amygdala has the effect of flattening emotions, decreasing fear levels significantly, and it also has an impact on aggression and memory. **Conditioning of fear** The conditioning of fear is a type of associative learning where, through mechanisms of classical conditioning, an association is established between a neutral stimulus (NS) and an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) capable of eliciting an unconditioned response (UCR). Once the association is established, the NS is capable of eliciting the response by itself, which becomes a conditioned response (CR). The study of fear conditioning is important for psychobiology because it helps us understand the development of these associations, which form the basis of disorders like post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and phobias. Currently, these studies are performed using pre-clinical models, mainly with rats. The studies usually take place in Skinner boxes where the NS is a tone or sound and the UCS is a mild electric shock (not painful but unpleasant) applied to the animal's paws. #### 13.4. Neurobiología del amor Humans are social beings by nature. Among the social needs we have, we can find the need for affiliation, belonging, and providing and receiving affection. Love is, in this sense, a feeling that is usually lasting and that we establish towards others. It can manifest as fraternal love, in the case of siblings or family, maternal/paternal love, in the case of children, romantic love, in the case of couples, etc. Love is, as a feeling, universal, meaning that anyone in the world, regardless of race, culture or gender, can feel love and all the reactions that come with it (satisfaction, happiness, etc.). In this sense, love is one of the main motivations that may guide one's behavior. But what are the neurobiological mechanisms behind this feeling and its expression? Every type of love is highly reinforcing for the person who feels it. Feeling love is closely linked to the perpetuation of the species and, therefore, it is related to very important neurobiological mechanisms from an evolutionary perspective. Neuroimaging techniques have revolutionized our understanding of how love works. Thanks to them, we currently know that the areas involved in love are: - The cerebral cortex. - The medial insula. - The anterior cingulate gyrus. - The hippocampus. - Specific parts of the striatum. - The nucleus accumbens (presumably). All these structures are part of the brain's reward circuit , which is responsible for feelings of euphoria, intense happiness, etc., that love brings us. These same areas are also involved in responses to love and contain high concentrations of dopamine (DA). Dopamine is released in the hypothalamus and its release is related to the feeling of well-being in the person and to the formation of relationships, and even related to sexual desire. An increase in dopamine levels is also associated with a decrease in serotonin (5-HT) levels, especially during the early stages of romantic love, which is linked to the obsession with that person in the early stages of a relationship. Other substances associated with the formation of affective bonds are oxytocin and vasopressin. Both are produced in the hypothalamus and are released into the bloodstream from the neurohypophysis or posterior pituitary gland, especially during orgasm (in both sexes) and during childbirth and breastfeeding in women. In men, vasopressin is also associated with social behavior, especially aggression towards others. As we have seen, romantic love arises from the connections between different cortical and subcortical areas of the brain, including the temporal, parietal, and medial temporal lobes, as well as the amygdala (we have already seen how the amygdala is related to fear). Neuroimaging studies have shown that amygdala activity is reduced when people see their partners. Also, there is a reduction in frontal lobe activity, which translates to a relaxation of the criteria by which we tend to judge the characteristics of other people. This can sometimes make love irrational, leading us to form bonds with inappropriate people, because we no longer use our criteria for judging others or we do so in a less rigorous way. Throughout this section, we have talked about both maternal and romantic love because they both have a common purpose: perpetuating the human species. Also, they both represent the establishment of lasting bonds between people, which makes them rewarding and meaningful. Consequently, they both involve the same brain areas. Therefore, the activation patterns of maternal and romantic love are identical. However, there are also neurobiological differences between them. For example, in maternal love there is significant activation of the brain areas associated with facial recognition (to read the facial expressions of children). Another important difference is that the hypothalamus is only involved in romantic love, due to its role in sexual arousal. Another difference is that maternal love is directed towards children. But what determines that we choose one person as a partner and not another? Several studies suggest that, when choosing a partner, brain areas involved in perception, memory, and cognitive and emotional responses are involved. In mammals, the courtship phase is characterized by an increase in energy, focused attention, obsession, gestures, possessiveness towards the partner, and motivation to find a specific individual as a partner. In humans, romantic love shares characteristics with other mammals, as the main feature of human romantic love is a preference for one person and the enamorment (or courtship) phase, which may last anywhere from 12 to 18 months. In addition, studies have shown that the release of dopamine in the brain's reward centers, as well as oxytocin and vasopressin are also involved in choosing a partner. #### 13.5. Emociones sociales Social emotions are those we feel when interacting with others, arising in specific social contexts and making no sense if we do not feel them towards another person. For example, we can feel love towards another person, anger towards another person, envy of what someone else has, etc. In this section, we don't deal with love because it has already been explained before. Instead, we focus on jealousy as an example of a relationship problem, empathy, embarrassment, and envy. **Jealousy in romantic relationships** Jealousy, strictly speaking, is not a simple emotion, but rather a combination of at least three emotions: - Anger. - Fear. - Sadness. It is normal for anyone to feel jealous at some point in their lives due to feelings of insecurity, fear of losing their partner, etc. However, in psychology, there are cases of pathological jealousy, which occur when a person is convinced and obsessed with their partner being or about to be unfaithful, despite having no valid reason to believe so. In this sense, neuroimaging and neuropathological studies suggest that pathological jealousy is associated with alterations in the fronto-striatal circuits, the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), the thalamus, the insula, and the amygdala. These circuits are involved in controlling a wide range of behaviors, including reward and emotional processing, impulsivity, etc., as well as dopamine and serotonin regulation. Specifically, studies have shown that, in adults, triggering jealousy (through images or specific contexts) leads to increased activation of the basal ganglia and the frontal lobe (especially the vmPFC). Additionally, in women, listening to descriptions of their own experiences with infidelity increased activity in areas involved in the processing of negative emotions, such as the fronto-medial cortex, the anterior cingulate gyrus, and the insula. **Empathy** Most studies define empathy as a complex phenomenon associated with prosocial behavior, which involves an individual's ability to experience and share the emotional state of another person. Generally, three components are identified in empathy: - **Emotional contagion**: A process where an individual is affected by the emotional state or arousal of another person. - **Compassionate concern**: It refers to the assessment and attempt to understand the emotional state of the other person and the desire to alleviate their distress. - **Empathic perspective-taking**: It occurs when an individual is able to put themselves in the place or perspective of the other person. There are two types of empathy: - **Emotional**: An affective reaction to the emotions or actions of others. - **Cognitive**: Understanding the perspective of the other or putting oneself in their shoes. Different neuroimaging (fMRI, EEG, etc.) and psychological tests (IRI, RMET, etc.) have been used to study the brain networks associated with both types of empathy: - **Cognitive empathy**: Research suggests that it relies on a network that connects the ventromedial and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (PFCvm and PFCdm, respectively), the anterior cingulate cortex, the temporoparietal junction (TPJ) and the medial temporal lobe. This circuit seems to be involved in attributing mental states and taking a perspective.. - **Emotional empathy**: In contrast with cognitive empathy, emotional empathy appears to be an automatic and unconscious response to the emotions of others. The involved brain structures in this type of empathy include the inferior frontal gyrus, the inferior parietal lobe, the anterior cingulate gyrus, and the anterior insula. These structures form a circuit responsible for recognizing emotions, emotional contagion, motor empathy, and **shared pain**. **Embarrassment** Embarrassment can be defined as an emotion marked by a negative self-evaluation and manifested by the person when they realize they have committed an offense or broken a norm, usually a social one. Additionally, when the person thinks about it, they may perceive themselves as incapable, worthless, deserving blame and rejection. Embarrassment contributes to a sense of helplessness, a feeling of being small, shrinking back, being exposed and wanting to disappear. Embarrassment is a complex and intricate emotion because it requires cognitive abilities like self-awareness (the self) and complex representations of oneself, which we adopt as pillars of our identity. As a social emotion, it is important for social development and the maintenance of social relationships because it acts as a social regulator, promoting social adaptation through balancing the individual's desires with the rights and needs of others. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have assessed reactions to embarrassment triggered by short phrases or autobiographical memories. In healthy individuals, the emotion of embarrassment is associated with increased activity in: - Areas of the prefrontal cortex (ventrolateral, dorsolateral, and dorsomedial). - Areas of the temporal cortex and the anterior part of the insula. - Parietal areas - Posterior cingulate gyrus - Parahippocampal gyrus - Basal ganglia - Sensorimotor areas. **Envy** Envy is a common thread among rivals, competitors, friends , and family members. Generally, envy is considered a negative thing in a person. However, envy can have a positive function, motivating a spirit of rivalry, competition, success, and changes in status. Neuroimaging studies (MRI) have shown dysfunction in certain areas of the brains of people with pathological envy, such as the **overactivation of mirror neurons in the parietal lobe and the premotor cortex, as well as a high activity in the prefrontal cortex and the striatum (both areas associated with the assessment of situations and motivation). In conclusion, social comparison (when someone loses) leads to a decreased sense of self-worth, which the brain may interpret as physical pain. This triggers specific compensatory psychological mechanisms where the defeat or failure of another person is perceived as a personal victory. Short-term envy reactions are based on the activation of the brain's natural mirror neuron system, which involves an imitative desire, important for survival. Research has shown an overactivation of mirror neurons that is responsible for frequently experiencing envy and, over time, could be responsible for the dependence on others' opinions, a fragile self-worth, and the assessment of one's own needs, as well as for frustrated desires for approval, recognition, and self-actualisation. In the Alexithymia video, the concept of alexithymia is explained as an inability to feel and express emotions, along with its characteristics. On the other hand, in the Fear Conditioning video, you can see how this experimental paradigm takes place. ### A fondo #### El pequeño Albert A short video explains the famous (and controversial) experiment conducted by James Watson that laid the foundation for classical conditioning in humans. Based on the experiments performed by Pavlov with dogs, Watson tried to extrapolate them to humans using an 11-month-old baby as the experimental subject. #### Las emociones y los infantes In this video, Elsa Punset discusses the impact of emotions on the intelligence of children and the role that parents and educators can play in managing them. She says: “The best thing we can do for children is to help them live with all their emotions and be an example by teaching them to name their emotions, find solutions, and to help them become independent.” ### Test 1. What does the limbic system consist of? a. Amygdala, mammillary bodies, and the hippocampus. b. Hypothalamus, olfactory bulb, and septum. c. Cingulate gyrus. d. All of the above are part of the limbic system. 2. What is one of the main structures involved in the neuromodulation of fear? a. Septal nuclei. b. Orbitofrontal cortex. c. Amygdala d. None of the above. 3. What amygdala nucleus mediates physiological expressions? a. Lateral. b. Medial. c. Central. d. Basolateral. 4. In fear conditioning: a. NS is typically a sound or tone. b. NS is typically an electric shock. c. UCS is typically a sound or tone. d. The most important structure is the cerebellum. 5. What is one of the characteristics of love? a. It is universal. b. It has a cultural bias. c. Not everyone experiences it. d. It does not involve motivation. 6. What neurotransmitter is particularly involved in the love response, increasing its levels in the nervous system? a. Serotonin. b. Dopamine. c. Norepinephrine d. None of the above. 7. What has been observed to decrease at the beginning of a romantic relationship? a. Dopamine. b. Serotonin. c. Oxytocin. d. Orexins. 8. What hormones are associated with the formation of affective bonds? a. Oxytocin and vasopressin. b. Dopamine. c. Glutamate. d. Cortisol. 9. What are types of empathy? a. Emotional and cognitive. b. Rational and social. c. Fraternal and romantic. d. None of the above. 10. What are mirror neurons involved in? a. Embarrassment. b. Fraternal love. c. Pathological jealousy. d. Envy.