Technology Research Methodology CoTM 528 PDF

Welcome Technology Research methodology CoTM 528 By Dr. Tsegay G.  Meaning of Research 2  Research can be expressed as:  It is a scientific and systematic effort to gain new knowledge and solution to a problem,  It is an art...

Welcome Technology Research methodology CoTM 528 By Dr. Tsegay G.  Meaning of Research 2  Research can be expressed as:  It is a scientific and systematic effort to gain new knowledge and solution to a problem,  It is an art of scientific investigation,  It is a careful investigation or inquiry of new facts in any branch of knowledge International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Meaning of Research 3  Research comprises the process of defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions/judgment and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Objective of research, 4  To gain new insights of phenomenon (studied as exploratory or formative research);  To portray/describe accurate characteristics of particular situation (studied with descriptive research);  To determine the frequency of occurs or association with something else (studies with diagnostic research studies); International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Objective of research, 5  To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (with hypothesis-testing research). International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Motivation in research 6 What makes people to undertake research? Desire to get a research degree and promotion along with its consequential benefits; Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work; Desire to service society; Desire to get respectability. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Types of research, 7  Descriptive  Analytical  Applied  Fundamental  Quantitative  Qualitative  Conceptual  Empirical  Mixed International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Types of research, 8 Descriptive  Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Types of research, 9  Descriptive  The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; it can only report what has happened or what is happening.  The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Types of research, 10 Analytical In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material/things. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Types of research, 11 Applied (action research)  The aim is to discover certain solution for some pressing practical problem for a society or industrial/business organization,  The research identifies the environmental, social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution/maters/things (examples marketing research or evaluation International Convension Guide 02/01/25 research).  Types of research, 12 Fundamental (basic or pure)  It is mainly concerned with generalizations and formulation of a theory.  It concerned with some natural phenomenon (example research relating to pure mathematics and makes generalizations about human behavior)  It directed towards finding knowledge that has a broad base of applications International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Types of research, 13 Quantitative: Applies to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity The quantitative analysis (inferential, experimental and simulation approaches)  The purpose of inferential (a data base to infer characteristics or relationships), survey is used (questioned or observed) to determine characteristics, International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Types of research, 14  Experimental is characterized by control the research environment and variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables.  Simulation construction of an artificial environment within which relevant information and data can be generated;  it is permits observation of dynamic behavior of a system International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Types of research, 15  The it is dynamic numerical model in context of business and social sciences applications.  It given the values of initial conditions, parameters and exogenous variables,  It developed models for understanding future conditions. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Types of research, 16  Qualitative:  It is concerned with qualitative phenomenon  Qualitative/subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and behavior  Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques and depth interviews are used. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Types of research, 17  Conceptual: it develops new concepts or to reinterpret existing hided ideas  Empirical: relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory, data based conclusion.  Mixed: forming by combing one or more of the methods. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Significance of research 18  All progress is born of inquiry/ investigable. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention”  Research inculcates/instruct/guide scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical habits of thinking and organization. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Significance of research 19  The increasingly complex nature of situations in different field (engineering, business, economic, and governance) & has focused attention on the use of research in solving any problems, form base and new alternatives and better Decision- making.  The problems of working conditions, trade union activities, distribution, even the size and nature of defence services are matters requiring research. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Significance of research 20  Research is considered necessary with regard to the allocation of nation’s resources.  Thus, in the context of government, research as a tool to economic policy has three distinct phases of operation  (i) Investigation of economic structure through continual compilation of facts; International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Significance of research 21  (ii) Diagnosis of events that are taking place and the analysis of the forces underlying;  (iii) The prognosis/predict, i.e., the prediction of future developments.  Operation research refers to the application of mathematical, logical and analytical techniques to the solution of business problems of cost minimization or of profit maximization or what can be termed as optimization problems. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Significance of research 22  In other words, it is concerned with the determination of motivations underlying the consumer (market) behavior.  Research, thus, replaces intuitive business decisions by more logical and scientific decisions.  Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Significance of research 23  It provides the intellectual satisfaction of knowing a few things just for the sake of knowledge and also has practical utility for the social scientist to know for the sake of being able to do something better or in a more efficient manner.  Research in social sciences is concerned both with knowledge for its own sake and with knowledge for what it can contribute to practical concerns. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Significance of research 24  It is increasingly being looked for practical guidance in solving immediate problems of human relations.”  In addition to what has been stated above, the significance of research can also be understood keeping in view the following points:  (a) To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure; International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Significance of research 25  (b) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood;  (c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights;  (d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and creative work;  (e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generations of new theories. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Significance of research 26  Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an important source of providing guidelines for solving different environmental, business, governmental and social problems.  ##It is a sort of formal training which enables one to understand the new developments in one’s field in a better way International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Research Methods vs Methodology 27  It seems appropriate at this juncture to explain the difference between research methods and research methodology.  Research methods/techniques may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are used for conduction of research. It refers to the methods the researchers use in performing research operations. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Research Methods vs Methodology 28  Since the object of research, particularly the applied research, it to arrive at a solution for a given problem, the available data and the unknown aspects of the problem have to be related to each other to make a possible solution. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Research Methods vs Methodology 29  The research methods can be put into the following three groups:  1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection of data. To collect new data or the data already available are not sufficient to arrive at the required solution; International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Research Methods vs Methodology 30  2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques/analysis which are used for establishing relationships between the data and the unknowns;  3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to validity and reliability evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained.  Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Research Methods vs Methodology 31  It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically.  Study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying the research problem along with the logic behind.  It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research methods/techniques but also the methodology. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Research Methods vs Methodology 32  Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate/analyze the (models, mean, mode, median or standard deviation or chi-square), how to apply particular research techniques, but they also need to know which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what would they mean and indicate and why. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Research Methods vs Methodology 33  Researchers also need to understand the assumptions underlying various techniques and they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others will not. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Research Methods vs Methodology 34  All this means that it is necessary for the researcher to design his methodology for his problem as the same may differ from problem to problem.  ##From what has been stated above, we can say that research methodology has many dimensions and research methods do constitute a part International of theConvension research methodology. Guide 02/01/25  Research Methods vs Methodology 35  The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research methods. Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also consider the logic behind the methods. It use in the context of research study and explain why we are using a particular method or technique and why we are not using others so that research results are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Research Methods vs Methodology 36  Why a research study has been undertaken, how the research problem has been defined, in what way and why the hypothesis has been formulated, what data have been collected and what particular method has been adopted, why particular technique of analyzing data has been used and a host of similar other questions are usually answered when we talk of research methodology International Convension Guide 02/01/25 concerning a research problem or study.  Research Methods vs Techniques 37  There is also, a distinction is made between research techniques and research methods are; research techniques refer to the behavior and instruments we use in performing research operations such as making observations, recording data, techniques of processing data and the like. Whereas, research methods refer to the behavior and instruments used in selecting and constructing research technique.International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Research Methods vs Techniques 38  For instance, the difference between methods and techniques of data collection can better be understood from the details given in the following Table; International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Research Methods vs Technique 39 International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Research and the scientific method 40 For a clear perception of the term research, one should know the meaning of scientific method.  The two terms, research and scientific method, are closely related.  Research is can be termed as “an inquiry into the nature of, the reasons for, and the consequences of any particular set of circumstances, whether these circumstances are experimentally controlled or recorded just as they occur. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Research and the scientific method 41  Further, research implies the researcher is interested in more than particular results; it is interested in the repeatability of the results and in their extension to more complicated and general situations.” International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Research and the scientific method 42  On the other hand, the philosophy common to all research methods and techniques, although verity considerably from one science to another, is usually given the name of scientific method.  International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Research and the scientific method 43  In this context, The scientific method is one and same in the branches (of science) that is all logically trained minds; the unity of all sciences consists alone in its methods and not its material; the man who classifies facts of any kind whatever, who sees their mutual relation and describes their sequences, is applying the Scientific Method and is a man of science.” International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Research and the scientific method 44  Scientific method is the pursuit/search way of truth as determined by logical considerations. The ideal of science is to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts. Scientific method attempts to achieve “this ideal by experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted postulates and a combination of these three in varying proportions.” International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Research and the scientific method 45  In scientific method, logic aids in formulating propositions explicitly and accurately so that their possible alternatives become clear. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Research and the scientific method 46  Further, logic develops the consequences of such alternatives, and when these are compared with observable phenomena, it becomes possible for the researcher or the scientist to state which alternative is most in harmony with the observed facts. All this is done through experimentation and survey investigations which constitute the integral parts of scientific method. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Research and the scientific method 47  Experimentation is done to test hypotheses and to discover new relationships. If any, among variables. But the conclusions drawn on the basis of experimental data are generally criticized for either faulty assumptions, poorly designed experiments, badly executed experiments or faulty interpretations. As such the researcher must pay all possible attention while developing the experimental design and must state only probable inferences. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Research and the scientific method 48 The purpose of survey investigations may also be to provide scientifically gathered information to work as a basis for the researchers for their conclusions.  The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as under:  1. It relies on empirical evidence;  2. It utilizes relevant concepts;  3. It is committed to only objective considerations; International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Research and the scientific  method 4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims 49 at nothing but making only adequate and correct statements about population objects;  5. It results into probabilistic predictions;  6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use in testing the conclusions through replication;  7. It aims at formulating most general axioms International Convension Guide 02/01/25 or what can be termed as scientific theories.  Research and the scientific method 50  Thus, “the scientific method encourages a rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dictated by the demands of logic and objective procedure. Accordingly, scientific method implies an objective, logical and systematic method, i.e., a method free from personal bias or prejudice, a method to ascertain demonstrable qualities of a phenomenon capable of being verified, a method wherein the researcher is guided by the rules of logical reasoning, a method wherein the investigation proceeds in an orderly manner and a method that implies internal consistency. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Criteria of good research 51  Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:  1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts International Convension Guide be used. 02/01/25  Criteria of good research 52  2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained.  3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Criteria of good research 53  4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings.  5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Criteria of good research 54  6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.  7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Criteria of good research 55  In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under:  1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Criteria of good research 56  2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Criteria of good research 57  3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results.  4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Chapter 2: Research process 58 Defining and formulating the research problem, In research process, the first and foremost step is selecting and properly defining the area of a research problem. The research problem must clearly studied and examined through different sources literature by researcher before selecting area/title. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Chapter 2: Research process 59 Defining and formulating the research problem, Then define the problem correctly and the researcher must understand and know the meaning of research problem. A researcher must formulate the problem it so that it becomes susceptible to research. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Research problem (chapter one) 60  A research problem refers to some difficulty or new invention, which a researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation; that helps to obtain a solution for the same.  Research problem does exist if the following conditions are met with:  (i) There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.  (ii) There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot have a problem. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Research problem 61  (iii) There must be alternative means (courses of action) for obtaining the objective(s) one wishes to attain. This means that there must be at least two (to choose one) means available to a researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem.  (iv) There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection of alternatives (create). This means that research must answer the question concerning the relative efficiency of the possible alternatives.  (v) There must be some environment(s) to which International Convension Guide 02/01/25 the difficulty pertains.  Selecting the problem 62  The identification of a research problem is an important phase of the entire research process.  Therefor, It requires a great deal of time, energy, and logical thinking. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Selecting the problem 63  Therefore, the following points may be observed by a researcher in selecting a research problem or a subject for research:  (i) Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to throw any new light in such a case (except transformation).  (ii) Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.  (iii) Too narrow or too vague problems should International Convension Guide 02/01/25 be avoided.  Cont… 64  (iv) The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related research material or sources of research are within one’s reach.  In this regarded, there are some important sources that help to selecting a familiar and feasible problem. These include the following: 1. Professional Experience  The day-to-day observation of the incidences in the working placesInternational and out ofGuide Convension the02/01/25 working places.  Cont… 65 2. Contact and Discussion with People  Contacts and discussions with research oriented people in conferences, seminars (specialized subject) or public lectures serve as important sources of problem. 3. Inference from Theory  A research problem can be derived from a critical look into various theories. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 66 4. Professional Literature  Consultation of research reports, bibliographies of books and articles (reference piece), periodicals(published regularly), research abstracts…(research gap) 5. Technological and social Change  Changes in technology or social environment such as changes in attitudes, preferences, policies of a nation… (technological gap) International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 67  (v) The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of researcher, costs involved, time factor are few other criteria that must also be considered in selecting a problem.  Therefore, before the final selection is done, a researcher must consider following important issues:  (a) Well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the research  (b) The budget it costs  (c) The way of cooperation with participate in research International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 68  (vi) The selection of a problem must be preceded/supported by a preliminary study (pilot study). When the field of inquiry is relatively new and does not have available a set of well-developed techniques then a brief feasibility study must always be undertaken. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Necessity of defining the problem to 69  It is known that clearly stated problem is a problem half solved.  The problem must be defined unambiguously to discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant ones.  Clearly defined problem will enable to be on track whereas an ill-defined may create hurdles.  Clearly to define the data to collection and characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied,  Clearly define the relations to be explore and the techniques used. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 70  Thus, defining a research problem properly is a prerequisite for any study and a step of the highest importance.  In fact, formulation of a problem is often more essential than its solution.  It is only on careful detailing the research problem that can work out the research design and can smoothly carry on all the consequential.  International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Considerations in selecting a research problem 71  When selecting a research problem/topic there is a number of considerations to keep in mind.  These considerations are: A. Novelty (new area of study) B. Interest C. Magnitude-(scope) D. Measurement of concepts/measurable -Do not use concepts in your research problem that you are not sure how to measure. E. Level of expertise-make sure you have an adequate level of expertise for the task you are proposing, F. The relevance and availability of data, G. Ethical issues International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Technique involved in defining a problem 72  Defining a problem involves the task of laying down boundaries within which a researcher shall study the problem with a pre-determined objective.  It is a task that must be tackled intelligently to avoid the perplexity/confusion encountered in a research operation.  The clear definition of research problem is undoubtedly a herculean /enormous task. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 73  Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a research study and must in no case be accomplished hurriedly/quickly.  However, in practice this frequently overlooked which causes a lot of problems later on.  Hence, the research problem should be defined in a systematic manner, giving due weightage to all relating points. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 74 i) Statement of the problem in a general way: First of all the problem should be stated in a broad general way, keeping in view either some practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interest. Then, for this purpose, the researcher must immerse/submerge thoroughly in the subject matter concerning which wishes to pose/study a problem. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 75  In some case, it is considered advisable to do some field observation and as such the researcher may undertake some sort of preliminary survey or what is often called pilot survey.  At the same time the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 76 ii) Understanding the nature of the problem: The next step in defining the problem is to understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with those who: First raised it in order to find out how the problem originally came about and with what objectives in view. Have a good knowledge of the problem concerned or similar other problems. The researcher should also keep in view the environment within which the problem is to be studied and understood. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 77 iii) Surveying the available literature: All available literature concerning the problem at hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the research problem. This means that the researcher must be well-conversant and devoted with relevant and related theories in the field, reports, and records to find out what data and other materials are available for operational purposes. “Knowing what data are available often serves to narrow the problem itself as well as the technique that might be used and find out difficulties.” International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 78 (iv) Developing the ideas through discussions: Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful information. Various new ideas can be developed through discussion with colleagues and experienced expertise to enlighten the researcher on different aspects, advice, and comments. This will help to the formulation of the specific problem, approach, techniques, and possible solutions. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 79 (v) Rephrasing the research problem: Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research problem into a working proposition. Once all the above has been, then rephrasing the problem into analytical or operational terms is not a difficult task. In rephrasing, the researcher puts the research problem as specific terms as possible to become operationally viable and helps to develop hypotheses. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 80  In addition to above, the following points must also be observed while defining a research problem:  (a) Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the statement of the problem, should be clearly defined.  (b) Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should be clearly stated.  (c) A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the criteria for the International Convension Guide 02/01/25 selection of the problem) should be provided.  Cont… 81  (d) The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also be considered by the researcher in defining the problem.  (e) The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Importance of formulating a research problem 82 a) It determines the research destine/predetermine. It indicates a way for the researcher. Clear and economical plan is impossible. b) Research problem is like the foundation of a building. The research problem serves as the foundation of a research study: if it is well formulated, one can expect a good study to follow. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 83 c) The way you formulate your research problem determines almost every step that follows: the type of study design that can be used; the type of sampling strategy that can be employed; the research instrument that can be used; and the type of analysis that can be undertaken. d) The quality of the research report (output of the research undertakings) is dependent on the quality of the problem formulation. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Literature review (state of art) 84 Reasons for reviewing the literature A key aspect and compulsory of almost all research projects is to carry out a brief literature review. The process of reviewing the related literature comprise, active reading, careful record keeping, selective note-taking, and critical evaluation of the information. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Explaining these concepts in greater details 85 The need for reading Any research activity requires the researcher(s)to be involved in a significant amount of reading. In this regard, the suggested reasons for reading for your research: It gives you ideas; It helps you in the process of clarifying and framing your research International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 86  It help you improve your writing style  To helps understand what other have done in your area  To broaden your perspectives and set your work in context  Because of direct personal experience can never be enough.  It is expected to do by the supervisor or manager,  To give recognition for the founder of the problem by citing International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 87  To show how the problem is interesting.  To legitimate your arguments.  It may cause you to change your mind for better way.  To better understand the disciplinary traditions within which you are working.  To become better at reading and reviewing.  To make you better writers.  To impress your readers with you knowledge of literature. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 88  To effectively criticize what others have done  To be cited by other readers  Others International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Three stages of reading researchS 89  At the beginning of your research to:  Check what other research has been done,  Focus your ideas, and  Explore the context for your project; International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 90  During your research to:  Keep your interested and up to date with developments,  Help you better understand the methods you are using and the field you are researching, and  Serve as a source of data; International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 91  After Your research to:  See what impact your own work has had, and  Help you develop ideas for further research projects International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Basic reading strategies 92  This part of the text provides some basic guidance on four related questions:  Where to read;  What to read;  Whom to read; and  How to find what you need to read International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Where to read. 93  Libraries of different type ( eg, public libraries, university libraries, etc)  Bookshops  Internet centre’s  Your employer  Colleagues  Supervisors  Friends  Students International Convension Guide 02/01/25  What to read 94  Books  Journals  Reports  Popular media  Computer-based materials:  Concept notes  Memos, minutes, internal reports:  Letters, diaries: International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Whom to read 95  You may be faced with a great deal of materials  This may put you in dilemma of where to start.  you should be able to get plenty of guidance on whom to read, at least to start with, from your supervisor, manager, colleagues or fellow researchers. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  How to find what you need to read 96  The eight-stage approach to help you find what you need to read:  Take advice from available sources: your supervisor, manager, fellow researchers or students.  Asking a librarian, browsing around or using a catalogue International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 97  Once you have identified relevant shelf locations, look at other books there, which are relevant to your topic  Once you have identified relevant journals, look through recent issues to find the most up-to-date writing on your topic.  Identify key texts by noting those that are referred to again and again. Seek out the latest editions. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 98  As you develop a feeling for the literature relevant to your field, try and ensure that you have some understanding of, and have done some reading within,  Read core meaning from your original sources by following up interesting references  Use the time and resources you have available to do as much related reading as possible. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Presentation of the Bibliography 99  Different publishers adopt different styles of citing information from the source (e.g. books, journals, reports ,etc.).  The citations are listed as either bibliography or references, which are then arranged:  Alphabetically by author's names  Number  Date and letter. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 100  The citations should follow a standard format.  There are a number of referencing/citation systems like Harvard, APA (American Psychological Association), GOST, IEEE, Chicago, ISO, etc.  Some publishers may have their own citation system  At this particular point in time, we shall limit ourselves to using the Harvard method, as it is believed to be highly practiced by many authors.  It has also an advantage of excluding footnotes, International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Citing Books Harvard method, 101  The citation of books follows the use of either underlining or italics. The presentation should be:  Author's family name, comma, initials of first name(s), year of publication in brackets, title of the book in upper and lower case underlined or in italics, comma, edition ( if applicable followed by comma), publisher, comma, place of publication, full stop.  Trudgill, P (1974a) The Social Differentiation of English in International Convension Guide 02/01/25 Norwich, Cambridge University press, Cambridge  Citing Articles/Journals Harvard method, 102  As lightly different format is used when citing contributions to journals:  Author's family name, comma, initials of first name (s), comma, year of publication in brackets, title of contribution in upper and lower case and in quotation marks, comma, Journal name, volume number in bold (heavy) type, issue number in brackets, comma, the page numbers of the article prefaced by pp, full stop.  Seyoum Teferra (1992) " Brain Drain Among Academicians in Two Higher Education Institutions in Ethioia ", The International Convension Guide 02/01/25 Ethiopian Journal of Education, 8(2),pp 27-46.  Thesis. Harvard method, 103  Occasionally you may wish to quote from a thesis and should follow this format:  Author's surname, comma, initial(s), year of award in brackets, title in upper and lower case underlined or in intalics, comma, degree awarded followed by Thesis, comma and the name of the awarding institution.  Selmes, IP (1985) Approaches to Learning at Secondary School: their identification and facilitation, PhD Thesis, International Convension Guide 02/01/25 University of Edinburgh.  APA (American Psychological Association) 104  Journals and DOIs  Gänsicke, B. T., Schreiber, M. R., Toloza, O., Fusillo, N. P. G., Koester, D., & Manser, C. J. (2019). Accretion of a giant planet onto a white dwarf star. Nature, 576(7785), 61–64. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-178 9-8 International Convension Guide 02/01/25  APA (American Psychological Association) 105  Citing Books  Zack, P. O. (2001). The shoals of time. First Books Library.  Niven, J. (2012). Ada Blackjack: A true story of survival in the Arctic.  Lastly, books from research databases without DOIs are treated the same as print works. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Note-Taking ( Reviewing the 106 Literature)  The process of note- taking can be done either in the form of paraphrasing or directly quoting the author's ideas. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Paraphrasing 107  Restating or rewarding a passage from a text, giving the same meaning in another form ( Hult, 1996, P.43).  The main objective of paraphrasing is to present an author's ideas in your own words. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Citing/Referring of others in the text 108  In Harvard system, at every point in the text at which reference is made to other writers, the name of the writer and the year of publication should be included. It is also advisable to include page number.  If the surname of the author is part of the sentence, then the year of the publication will appear in brackets.  Bloom ( 1963)  Bloom and tsegaye ( 1963)  Bloom et al. ( 1963) International Convension Guide 02/01/25 Cont…  (Bloom,1963)  (Bloom and tsegaye, 1963)  (Bloom et al., 1963)  Cont… 110  If there are three or less authors then their family names should be given; if there are more than three authors the first author's family name should be given, followed by et al., e.g:  Taylor, Barbara and Jones ( 1991, p33) suggest that…  In a recent study (Barbara and Jones, 1993, p 10) it is suggested…  The most recent work (Barbara et al. 1995,p 16) International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 111  If the same author has published two or more works in the same year then each work should be referred to individually by the year followed by lower case letters (a, b, c, etc). (These different references should be included in the bibliography).  For example:  Barbara (1996a, pp 35-7) shows how … International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Incorporating Direct Quotes 112  When your quotations are four lines in length or less, surround them with quotation marks and incorporate them into your text.  When your quotations are longer than four lines, set them off from the rest of the text by indenting five spaces from the left and right margins and triple-spacing above and below them. You do not need to use quotation marks with such block quotes. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 113  Follow the block quote with the punctuation found in the source. Then skip two spaces before parenthetical citation. Do not include a period after the parentheses.  "Evidence reveals that boys are higher on conduct disorder [behavior directed toward the environment] than girls." International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 114  Use ellipses (three spaced dots) to indicate that material has been omitted from the quote. It is not necessary to use ellipses for material omitted before the quote begins.  (" Fifteen to twenty percent of anorexia victims die of direct starvation or related illnesses… [which] their weak, immunises bodies cannot combat.") International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Organizing Your Literature Review 115  Once you have finished collecting and reviewing the literature, you are then required to organize the information in a way that suits to your interest.  Develop an outline or topic headings on which discussions of a review of the related literature follows.  Categorize the evidences of your review in light of your outline. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 116  Use your hypotheses to help serve as a framework to organize the review.  Whenever necessary, try to ask your supervisor, manager, colleagues or fellow students for advice as to what is expected and as to how you can proceed organizing.  Start writing up in coherent manner by giving particular attention to appropriate citation of references.  Present a brief summary of your review at the end of this section. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Determining the variables 117  A variable is a characteristic of a person, object, or phenomenon that can take on different values/measurment.  A simple example of a variable is a person's age. The variable can take on different values,  such as, 20 years old, 30 years old, and so on. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 118  Other examples of variables are: a) Weight in kilograms b) Height in centimeters c) Monthly income in Birr d) Marital status (single, married, divorced and widowed) e) Job satisfaction index (1 to 5) f) Occupation (civil servant, farmer, student, etc.) International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 119  The first three variables (a to c) are numerical variables because they are expressed in numbers (metric data).  Since the values of the remaining three variables (d to g) are expressed in categories, we call them categorical variables. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 120  In theoretical research we often look for associations/relations, it is important to make a distinction between dependent and independent variables. Both the dependent and independent variables together with their operational definitions (when necessary) should be stated. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 121  The variable that is used to describe or measure the problem under study is called the dependent variable. The variables that are used to describe or measure the factors that are assumed to influence (or cause) the problem are called independent variables.  For example, in a study of relationship between lung cancer, and smoking "suffering from lung cancer" (with the values yes, no) would be the dependent variable and "smoking" (with the values no, less than a packet/day, 1 to 2 packets/day, more than 2 packets/day) would be the independent variable. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Background variables 122  In almost every study involving human subjects or background variables, such as, age, sex, educational status, monthly income, marital status and religion will be included.  The background variables are often related to a number of independent variables, so that they influence the problem indirectly.  Hence they are called background variables or background characteristics. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Confounding variable 123  A variable that is associated/related with the problem and with a possible cause of the problem is a potential confounding variable. This type of variable may either strengthen or weaken the apparent relationship between the problem and a possible cause. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Composite variable 124  A variable depend on two or more other variables may be termed a composite variable.  Eg. debt/responsible to asset ratio, sex ratios, and other rates and ratios are composite variables, since they are based on separate numerator and denominator (xxx/yyy) information. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Operationalizing variables by choosing appropriate indicators 125  Note that the different values of many of the variables presented above can easily be determined. However, for some variables it is sometimes not possible to find meaningful categories unless the variables are made operational with one or more precise INDICATORS. Operationalising variables means that you make them ‘measurable'. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Defining variables and indicators of variables 126  To ensure that everyone (the researcher, data collectors, and eventually the reader of the research) understands exactly what has been measured and to ensure the consistency in the measurement, it is necessary to clearly define the variables and indicators of variables.  For example, to define the indicator “waiting time” it is necessary to decide what will be considered the starting point of the “waiting period” e.g. Is it when the paitient 1) enters the front door, or 2) when he has been registered or 3) obtained his card? International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 127  The variables to be studied are selected on the basis of their relevance to the objectives of the investigation.  The initial list is usually too long  It has to be reduced to facilitate the collection and processing of the data.  Once the variables are selected, each of them should be clarified. There are two aspects to be considered. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 128 1. Clear definition of variables in terms of objectively measurable facts (i.e., operational definition) - this was repeatedly mentioned (addressed) in the above examples 2. The scale of measurement to be used in data collection. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 129  In general, operational definitions of variables are used in order to:  Avoid ambiguity  Make the variables to be more measurable International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Scales of Measurement 130  As part of the process of clarifying each of the variables to be studied, its scale of measurement should be specified. There are four types of scales of measurement: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio. They are listed in ascending order of power and preference. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Nominal Scale 131  Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number or symbols to events in order to label them.  The usual example of this is the assignment of numbers of basketball players in order to identify them.  The numbers are just convenient labels for the particular class of events and as such have no quantitative value or indexing of value (assigning A, B, C or A1,A2,A3 or B1, B2, B3 or C1, C2, C3…). International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 132  Accordingly, it is restricted to use mode as the measure of central tendency.  There is no generally used measure of dispersion for nominal scales.  Nominal scale is the least powerful level of measurement.  It indicates no order or distance relationship and has no arithmetic origin. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Ordinal scale: 133  The ordinal scale places events in order, but there is no attempt to make the intervals of the scale equal in terms of some rule.  Ordinal scales only permit the ranking of items from highest to lowest.  Ordinal measures have no absolute values, and the real differences between adjacent ranks may not be equal. International Convension Guide 02/01/25  Cont… 134  Thus, the use of an ordinal scale implies a statement of ‘greater than’ or ‘less than’ (an equality statement is also acceptable) without our being able to state how much greater or less(a>b>d>c