Table of Studies PDF

**Objective** **Author** **Method** **Findings** **Interpretation** **Limitation** "New area of cognitive-developmental inquiry" Flavell, 1979 Metacognition is evaluation of one's cognitive thinking; thinking about thinking Consists of knowledge, regulation and experiences Higher order thi...

**Objective** **Author** **Method** **Findings** **Interpretation** **Limitation** "New area of cognitive-developmental inquiry" Flavell, 1979 Metacognition is evaluation of one's cognitive thinking; thinking about thinking Consists of knowledge, regulation and experiences Higher order thinking; awareness of own levels of understanding & control over process in learning Mis-calibration, not always accurate "Better-than average" Zell et al., 2020 Evaluation compared to others in domains (intelligence, skills). Rated abilities & traits to average person Most rated B-T-A, esp. positive traits Effect weaker in performance feedback (academics) Self-enhancement bias; perceive self as more positive than others Cultural bias: western populations, individualism amplify self-enhancement. Self-report issues "Dunning-Kruger" Dunning, 2011 Assess performance on task related to logical reasoning, grammar - then compare self-assessment with objective results **Lower performance** = rated abilities higher **Higher** = rated lower **Incompetent** = least able to recognise lack of skill Least skilled = most likely to overestimate competence, higher ability = lead to more accurate self-assessments Does not generalise to tall tasks/abilities, esp. those less objectively measurable "Bayesian shrinkage" Jansen et al., 2021 How people use Bayesian reasoning to update beliefs, focusing on shrinkage (adjusting estimates towards more likely value) Used shrinkage = make more accurate predictions, integrating prior knowledge + new evidence effectively A rational strategy, improving accuracy by adjusting initial beliefs based on new data Real-life application of Bayesian reasoning may be more complex. Individuals differences? **[Lecture 1: Introduction to metacognition]** **[Lecture 2: Measuring metacognition]** +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | **Objecti | **Author* | **Method* | **Finding | **Interpr | **Limitat | | ve** | * | * | s** | etation** | ion** | +===========+===========+===========+===========+===========+===========+ | "Self-rel | Craig et | Made | Showed | Highlight | Results | | iance | al., 2020 | initial | bias | s | depend on | | bias" | | judgments | towards | **self-re | how | | | | , | overweigh | liance | participa | | | | received | ting | bias**; | nt | | | | advice, | their own | individua | perceive | | | | then | judgments | ls | the | | | | adjusted | , | prioritis | source of | | | | their | even when | e | advice | | | | responses | advice | own view | (expertis | | | | | more | over | e/trustwo | | | | | accurate | external | rthiness | | | | | | input, | | | | | | | even when | | | | | | | irrationa | | | | | | | l | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | "Metacogn | Fleming & | Make | Better MC | MC relies | Differenc | | itive | Lau, 2014 | decisions | correlate | on | es | | accuracy" | | and rate | d | distinct | in MC | | | | their | with | brain | accuracy | | | | confidenc | stronger | networks; | may stem | | | | e, | connectio | allows to | from | | | | paired | ns | evaluate | cognitive | | | | with | between | own | ability/t | | | | neuroimag | prefronta | decisions | ask | | | | ing | l | + adjust | familiari | | | | | regions + | behaviour | ty | | | | | areas | according | | | | | | related | ly | | | | | | to | | | | | | | decision | | | | | | | making | | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | "Quantify | Maniscalc | Model to | Robust | Quantitat | Model | | ing | o | measure | measure; | ive | performan | | MC | & Lau | MC | distingui | framework | ces | | ability" | (2012) | sensitivi | shing | for | may vary | | | | ty' | between | assessing | across | | | | meta-d' | decision | MC | types of | | | | as SDT | accuracy | ability, | tasks/dec | | | | measure | + | furtherin | ision | | | | to | confidenc | g | domains | | | | quantify, | e | research | | | | | independe | | into | | | | | nt | Showed | self-moni | | | | | of task | variation | toring | | | | | performan | s | processes | | | | | ce | in MC | | | | | | | across | | | | | | | individua | | | | | | | ls | | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | "Reverse | Guggenmos | Computati | Revealed | How | | | engineeri | , | onal | how | computati | | | ng | 2022 | modelling | neural | onal | | | cognition | | + | signal | + neural | | | " | | neuroimag | contribut | data can | | | | | ing | e | be | | | | | to | to | integrate | | | | | reverse-e | generatio | d | | | | | ngineer | n | to | | | | | neural | of MC | unravel | | | | | mechanism | judgments | mechanism | | | | | s | | s | | | | | underlyin | | | | | | | g | | | | | | | cognitive | | | | | | | processes | | | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ **[Lecture 3: Psychopathology]** +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | **Objecti | **Author* | **Method* | **Finding | **Interpr | **Limitat | | ve** | * | * | s** | etation** | ion** | +===========+===========+===========+===========+===========+===========+ | "Domain-g | Benwell | Cognitive | Distinct | Decision- | Findings | | eneral | et al., | tasks | patterns | making | not full | | decision- | 2022 | measuring | of | + MC | generalis | | making | | decision- | decision- | impairmen | e | | + MC" | | making | making/MC | ts; | to | | | | + MC | w/ | serve as | clinical | | | | abilities | psychiatr | transdiag | populatio | | | | + | ic | nostic | ns | | | | self-repo | traits. | markers | w/ | | | | rt | | of mental | diagnosed | | | | measures | E.g. | health | psychiatr | | | | of | anxiety | vulnerabi | ic | | | | psychiatr | linked to | lities | disorders | | | | ic | lower MC | | | | | | traits | efficienc | | | | | | | y, | | | | | | | correlate | | | | | | | d | | | | | | | with | | | | | | | reduce | | | | | | | confidenc | | | | | | | e | | | | | | | calibrati | | | | | | | on | | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | "MC | David et | Findings | Schizo. | Failures | Metacogni | | failures | al., 2012 | from | character | of | tive | | + lack of | | behaviour | ised | MC/insigh | impairmen | | insight" | | al | by | t | ts | | | | + | impaired | common | vary | | | | neuroimag | self-moni | features | across | | | | ing | toring | of | condition | | | | studies | + reduced | neuropsyc | s, | | | | to | MC | hiatric | complicat | | | | explore | awareness | disorders | ing | | | | underlyin | -- poor | ; | generalis | | | | g | insight | disruptio | ations. | | | | mechanism | | ns | | | | | s | | in | | | | | | | mechanism | | | | | | | s | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | "Confiden | Hoven et | Confidenc | Schizo = | Abnormali | Limited | | ce | al., 2019 | e | **overcon | ties | understan | | abnormali | | miscalibr | fidence** | = | ding | | ties" | | ation | | disrupted | of how | | | | across | Depressio | MC | confidenc | | | | psychiatr | n | processes | e | | | | ic | = | /impaired | abnormali | | | | condition | **underco | decision- | ties | | | | s | nfidence* | making | develop/i | | | | affects | * | | nteract | | | | decision- | | | with | | | | making | | | other | | | | | | | symptoms | | | | | | | over | | | | | | | time. | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | "Psychiat | Rouault | Perceptua | Anxiety | Psychiatr | May not | | ric | et al., | l | associate | ic | fully | | symptoms | 2018 | decision- | d | symptoms | generaliz | | + MC | | making | with | selective | e | | ability" | | + | reduced | ly | to | | | | self-repo | metacogni | impact MC | clinical | | | | rted | tive | processes | populatio | | | | symptoms | efficienc | , | ns | | | | using | y | not | with more | | | | measures | (poorer | underlyin | severe | | | | | confidenc | g | psychiatr | | | | | e-accurac | task | ic | | | | | y | ability; | symptoms. | | | | | alignment | distinct | | | | | | ). | cognitive | | | | | | | mechanism | | | | | | Compulsiv | s | | | | | | ity | across | | | | | | linked to | symptom | | | | | | overconfi | dimension | | | | | | dence | s. | | | | | | in | | | | | | | decisions | | | | | | |. | | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ **[Lecture 4: Belief structures]** +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | **Objecti | **Author* | **Method* | **Finding | **Interpr | **Limitat | | ve** | * | * | s** | etation** | ion** | +===========+===========+===========+===========+===========+===========+ | Germans' | Fischer | Collected | Overestim | Overconfi | Results | | knowledge | et al., | data | ated | dence | specific | | + climate | 2019 | through | confidenc | in | to | | change | | surveys, | e | knowledge | Germans; | | | | measured | judgments | may delay | reliance | | | | objective | about | informed | on | | | | knowledge | climate-r | decision- | self-repo | | | | about | elated | making/ | rted | | | | climate | topics | communica | data may | | | | change | | tion | limit | | | | | | about | broader | | | | | | climate | applicabi | | | | | | change | lity | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | "Knowledg | Light et | Surveys | Greater | Overconfi | Results | | e | al., 2022 | measuring | confidenc | dence | may vary | | overconfi | | participa | e; | may drive | depending | | dence | | nts' | likely to | resistanc | on | | + | | objective | hold | e | scientifi | | anti-cons | | knowledge | anti-cons | to | c | | ensus | | , | ensus | scientifi | issue + | | view on | | confidenc | views | c | its | | controver | | e | | consensus | context | | sial | | + | Overconfi | by | | | topics" | | agreement | dence | fostering | | | | | | = linked | false | | | | | | to | certainty | | | | | | reduced | | | | | | | trust in | | | | | | | experts | | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | "Radical | Rollwage | Perceptua | Radical | Poorer | Findings | | beliefs + | et al., | l | believers | insight = | based on | | MC | 2018 | task, | = poorer | severity | perceptua | | ability" | | decision- | MC | of | l | | | | making | performan | radical | tasks; | | | | + | ce: | beliefs; | not | | | | confidenc | less | less | generalis | | | | e | accurate | likely to | able | | | | judgments | at | question | to | | | | ; | evaluatin | their | real-worl | | | | surveys | g | opinions | d | | | | assessing | their | in light | decisions | | | | extremity | decisions | of new | | | | | of their | | evidence | | | | | beliefs | | | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | "MC | Said et | Evaluated | Higher | MC | Ambiguous | | insight | al., 2022 | ambiguous | insight | insight | evidence | | influence | | evidence | less | protectiv | specifici | | s | | related | likely to | e | ty | | susceptib | | to | polarise | factor | | | ility | | controver | when | against | | | to | | sial | interpret | polarisat | | | polarisat | | topics | ing | ion; | | | ion" | | while | evidence | more | | | | | their MC | on | flexible | | | | | ability | controver | evaluatio | | | | | was | sial | ns | | | | | assessed | issues; | of | | | | | | poorer = | contested | | | | | | greater | evidence | | | | | | bias + | | | | | | | polarisat | | | | | | | ion | | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | "Dogmatis | Schulz et | Tasks | Higher | Reduced | Unclear | | m | al., 2020 | required | dogmatism | info | whether | | + info | | to gather | less info | search | dogmatism | | searching | | info to | search | under | causes | | behaviour | | reduce | | uncertain | reduced | | under | | uncertain | Higher | ty; | info | | uncertain | | ty | confidenc | reinforce | search or | | ty" | | before | e | dogmatic | if | | | | making | in | beliefs | limited | | | | decision | decisions | by | info-seek | | | | | despite | limiting | ing | | | | | less info | exposure | reinforce | | | | | | to | s | | | | | | contradic | dogmatic | | | | | | ting | beliefs. | | | | | | evidence | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ **[Lecture 5: Neural Correlates of MC]** +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | **Objecti | **Author* | **Method* | **Finding | **Interpr | **Limitat | | ve** | * | * | s** | etation** | ion** | +===========+===========+===========+===========+===========+===========+ | "Neural | Fleming & | Combining | **PFC + | Mc | Correlati | | basis of | Dolan, | fMRI with | parietal | ability | ons | | MC | 2012 | cognitive | cortex** | involves | identifie | | ability" | | tasks; | = MC | network | d; | | | | focused | abilities | of brain | casual | | | | on |. | regions | role of | | | | regions | | | regions | | | | w/ | **Medial | | remains | | | | self-refl | PFC** = | | unclear | | | | ection | correctne | | | | | | + | ss | | | | | | decision | of | | | | | | making | decisions | | | | | | |. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | **PPC** = | | | | | | | monitorin | | | | | | | g | | | | | | | performan | | | | | | | ce | | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | "Domain | Morales | MC tasks | **Domain- | MC is | Task-spec | | patterns | et al., | monitorin | general** | supported | ificity: | | of neural | 2018 | g | = MC | by | may not | | activity | | performan | processes | flexible | generalis | | in PFC" | | ce | across | neural | e | | | | across | tasks | networks | to all MC | | | | domains; | | that | tasks | | | | brain | **Domain- | adapt to | | | | | activity | specific* | demands | | | | | measured | * | of | | | | | using | = active | different | | | | | fMRI | during | tasks | | | | | | specific | | | | | | | types of | | | | | | | self-moni | | | | | | | toring | | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | VMPFC + | Gherman & | Performed | VMPFC | VMPFC | Specific | | early | Philiasti | perceptua | encodes | involved | to only | | signature | des, | l | early | in | perceptua | | s | 2018 | tasks, | confidenc | initial | l | | of | | fMRI | e | encoding | tasks; | | confidenc | | measured | signals | of | cannot | | e" | | brain | before | confidenc | generalis | | | | activity. | participa | e | e | | | | | nts | during | to other | | | | Confidenc | make | decision- | judgment | | | | e | explicit | making; | tasks | | | | assessed | judgement | early | | | | | in | s | evaluatio | | | | | real-time | about | n | | | | | based on | their | of | | | | | subjectiv | decisions | decisions | | | | | e | | | | | | | ratings | | | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | "Neuroima | Vaccaro & | Analysed | PFC | MC | Cannot | | ging | Fleming, | data from | particula | judgments | establish | | studies | 2018 | fMRI + | rly | rely on | casual | | on MC | | PET | important | brain | relations | | judgments | | studies | for | areas, | hips | | " | | to | higher-or | PFC | between | | | | identify | der | central | brain | | | | common | cognitive | in | areas + | | | | neural | control | self-moni | MC | | | | substrate | | toring, | abilities | | | | s | PPC | other | | | | | involved | supported | areas for | | | | | in MC | monitorin | evaluatio | | | | | | g/evaluat | n | | | | | | ion | | | | | | | of | | | | | | | performan | | | | | | | ce | | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ **[Lecture 6: Evolution + metacognition in other species]** **Objective** **Author** **Method** **Findings** **Interpretation** **Limitation** --------------- ------------ ------------ -------------- -------------------- ---------------- **[Lecture 8: Consciousness]** **Objective** **Author** **Method** **Findings** **Interpretation** **Limitation** ----------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ "Studying of MC provides insights into hard problem of consciousness" Megan Peters, 2022 Introduced M-STEP (MC as a Step Toward Explaining Phenomenology) Learning how brain generates self-awareness + confidence judgments = uncover mechanisms in experience Could bridge gap between objective cognitive processes + subjective aspects of consciousness "Post-decision wagering" Persaud et al., 2007 Made decision and wagered on their confidence levels, comparing outcomes to subjective reports Post-decision wagering correlates with **conscious awareness;** Links confidence + decision-making to behavioural outcomes Monetary incentive may introduce biases; approach might not isolate conscious awareness from decision-related factors. "Unconscious info changes decision accuracy" Vlassova et al., 2014 Exposed to subliminal visual info; assessed for decision accuracy/confidence ratings Unconscious info improved decision accuracy w/out affecting subjective confidence levels Confidence; not always reflect accuracy of decisions; dissociation between unconscious processing+ conscious awareness Limited to visual tasks, findings may not apply across different sensory modalities/ types of unconscious information. **[Lecture 9: Improving MC]** +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | **Objecti | **Author* | **Method* | **Finding | **Interpr | **Limitat | | ve** | * | * | s** | etation** | ion** | +===========+===========+===========+===========+===========+===========+ | "Confiden | Ais et | Made | Confidenc | Confidenc | Exact | | ce | al., 2016 | perceptua | e | e | cognitive | | in | | l | ratings | not | /neural | | decisions | | + rated | only | perfect | processes | | and its | | confidenc | partially | reflectio | behind | | accuracy" | | e | aligned | n | heuristic | | | | in those | with | of | influence | | | | judgments | decision | accuracy | s | | | | | accuracy | -- rather | remain | | | | | | heuristic | unclear | | | | | | -based | | | | | | | judgment | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | "Domain | Kopcanova | Measured | MC | MC shows | 2 days | | generalit | et al., | MC | performan | partial | not full | | y | 2013 | ability | ce | generalit | capture | | of MC" | | in | stable | y; | long-term | | | | perceptio | within | overarchi | patterns/ | | | | n | each | ng | variabili | | | | + | domain | strategie | ty | | | | knowledge | | s | | | | | tasks | Little | for | | | | | across 2 | overlap | self-moni | | | | | days | in MC | toring | | | | | | ability | but | | | | | Compared | between | distinct | | | | | MC | tasks = | mechanism | | | | | performan | domain-sp | s | | | | | ce | ecificity | for | | | | | across | | sensory | | | | | domains | | vs | | | | | | | cognitive | | | | | | | tasks | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | "Differen | Rouault | Used | Higher | Specific | Cannot | | ces | et al., | statistic | openness | traits, | establish | | in | 2018 | al | to | "openness | causation | | personali | | methods | experienc | ", | between | | ty | | to | es | may | personali | | predict | | examine | associate | facilitat | ty | | MC | | how | d | e | + MC | | sensitivi | | individua | with MC | self-moni | | | ty" | | l | ability | toring | | | | | differenc | | abilities | | | | | es | | | | | | | predict | | | | | | | MC | | | | | | | sensitivi | | | | | | | ty | | | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | "Training | Baird et | 2-week | Meditatio | Training | Efficienc | | programme | al., 2014 | "Samatha" | n | may | y | | " | | meditatio | improved | improve | seen for | | | | n | MC | brain's | memory | | | | on MC | efficienc | ability | but not | | | | efficienc | y; | to | perceptua | | | | y | became | evaluate/ | l | | | | in memory | better at | regulate | performan | | | | task. | aligning | cognitive | ce | | | | | their | processes | | | | | Rated | confidenc | | | | | | confidenc | e | | | | | | e | ratings | | | | | | before/af | with | | | | | | ter | memory | | | | | | training | accuracy | | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | "Feeback | Carpenter | Compared | Receiving | Feedback | Incentivi | | training | et al., | control | feedback | enhances | sing | | could | 2019 | group who | = sig. | self-moni | post-trai | | improve | | only | improveme | toring | ning | | MC | | received | nt | abilities | may have | | sensitivi | | feedback | in MC | , | inflated | | ty" | | on 1^st^ | sensitivi | unlike | improveme | | | | order | ty | task-focu | nt; | | | | performan | | sed | causing | | | | ce | Control = | feedback | abrupt | | | | | no | alone | increase | | | | | improveme | | in | | | | | nt | | confidenc | | | | | | | e | | | | | | | from pre | | | | | | | to post | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | "MC | Rouy et | Replicate | Replicate | Reinforce | Findings | | feedback, | al., 2022 | d | d | s | still | | controlli | | Carpenter | the | validity | specific | | ng | | , | original | of | to | | confounds | | in | improveme | feedback | training | | " | | independe | nt | training | task; can | | | | nt | in | as | be | | | | sample; | sensitivi | effective | improved | | | | controlle | ty | method | independe | | | | d | with | | ntly | | | | incentive | training | | of 1^st^ | | | | -related | | | order | | | | confounds | | | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | "Effectiv | Normann & | Meta-anal | MCT = | Findings | Variabili | | eness | Morina, | ytic | highly | support | ty | | of MCT | 2018 | review | effective | MCT as | in study | | for | | covering | , | robust | designs | | treating | | condition | large | intervent | and | | psycholog | | s | effect | ion | quality | | ical | | like | sizes for | for | may | | disorders | | anxiety + | reducing | disorders | impact | | " | | depressio | symptoms; | | generalis | | | | n | greater | | ability | | | | | efficacy | | | | | | | compared | | | | | | | to other | | | | | | | approache | | | | | | | s | | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ **[Lecture 10: Limits of self-knowledge]** **Objective** **Author** **Method** **Findings** **Interpretation** **Limitation** ------------------------------------------------- ------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- "Mind beyond immediate awareness" Ekstrom, 2004 Review contrasting psychoanalytic theories with contemporary cognitive science perspectives**.** All models acknowledge influence of unconscious processes on behaviour + decision-making. Could provide a more comprehensive understanding of unconscious processes "Perceptual awareness without conscious access" Fahrenfort et al., 2017 EEG + behavioural experiments where participants integrated visual information shown below threshold of conscious awareness. Perceptual integration occurred even when participants were not consciously aware of the stimuli. Conscious awareness not necessary for integrating perceptual info, challenging traditional views. findings may not extend to other types of sensory integration. "Positivity + optimism bias" Wilson & Dunn, 2004 Tendency to expect favourable outcomes Helps individuals endure difficult situations Optimism may play protective role in overall well-being, aiding emotion stability Relies on secondary data without offering novel experimental evidence; practical applications may vary across individuals and contexts. "Faculty of language" Hauser et al., 2002 Theoretical and comparative analysis of linguistic/cognitive capacities across species; recursion as a core component. Language faculty can be divided into broad (shared with other species) and narrow (unique to humans) components, with recursion as a defining feature of the latter. evolution of recursion underpins human language\'s uniqueness and requires a multidisciplinary approach to study. speculative nature of evolutionary arguments and difficulty empirically testing recursion in non-human animals.