Nomenclature and the Codes (PDF)

○ Similarities between Topic Outline of Botanical and Zoological Codes "Nomenclature and the ○ Differences between Codes" Botani...

○ Similarities between Topic Outline of Botanical and Zoological Codes "Nomenclature and the ○ Differences between Codes" Botanical and Zoological Codes I. Introduction to Nomenclature II. Key Concepts in Nomenclature A. Importance and Purpose of Nomenclature A. Scientific Names ○ Ensures a precise system of ○ Definition and Purpose naming and ranks for ○ Structure of Binomials organisms ○ Use of Latin Language ○ Provides names that are ○ Italics or Underlining unique, stable, and universal ○ Reasons for Changes in ○ Aims to avoid confusion in Scientific Names scientific naming Increased scientific ○ Promotes stability and understanding universality in scientific Correct application of names nomenclature codes B. History of Scientific ○ Two activities of ICN Nomenclature ○ Legitimate and illegitimate ○ Early Use of Vernacular and names Latin Names ○ Principles of plant ○ Linnaeus's Binomial System nomenclature and the Need for Universal B. Ranks and Position Codes ○ Definition and Hierarchy C. Nomenclature Codes ○ Major Ranks and Their ○ International Code of Endings Nomenclature for algae, ○ Botanical names rank fungi, and plants (ICN) endings ○ International Code of ○ Zoological names rank Zoological Nomenclature endings (ICZN) ○ Bacteriological names rank ○ International Code of endings Nomenclature of Bacteria ○ Alternate Family/Subfamily ○ Separate codes for botany, Names zoology, microbiology, ○ Ternary Names (Subspecies viruses, and domesticated and Variety) animals C. Authorship ○ Definition and Importance  ○ Abbreviation of Author ○ Definition and Creation of Names Autonyms D. Types I. Valid Publication ○ Definition and Purpose of ○ Main Criteria for Valid Nomenclature Types Publication ○ Different Types of Types: ○ Protologue Holotype, Isotype, Lectotype, J. Learning Scientific Names Neotype, Syntype, ○ Methods: Syllabization, Isosyntype, Paratype, Epitype Mnemonic Devices, ○ Taxonomic Ranks Having Etymology, Practice Types K. Abbreviations E. Priority of Publication ○ Common Abbreviations Used ○ Definition and Importance in Botanical Nomenclature: ○ Starting Point and Exceptions "in", "ex", "s.l.", "s.s." or ○ Adverse Consequences and "s.str.", "x", "sp. nov.", "cf.", Correction (Conservation of "aff." Names) L. Independence and Retroactivity ○ Reasons for Name Changes of Botanical Nomenclature F. Synonyms ○ Definition and Reasons for III. Specific Rules and Conventions Rejection A. Gender in Latin Names ○ Types of Synonyms: ○ Importance and Homotypic and Heterotypic Determination ○ Examples of Synonyms B. Commemorative Names G. Homonyms and Tautonyms ○ Formation and Usage ○ Definition of Homonym ○ Definition of Tautonym and ----------------------------------------------------------- Its Illegitimacy in ICN ----------------------------------------------------------- H. Basionyms and Autonyms ------- ○ Definition and Importance of Basionyms  fungi, and the ICZN for animals, provides a I. Introduction to rule-based system to govern these principles. These Nomenclature codes aim to standardize scientific naming conventions and ensure their consistent application. A. The Importance and B. History of Scientific Purpose of Nomenclature in Nomenclature Biological Sciences Development and Implementation of Nomenclature, the system of naming organisms, is Nomenclature Codes crucial for effective scientific communication in biology. A precise and universally understood Early Naming Practices and the Birth of Binomial system ensures that scientists worldwide can Nomenclature clearly identify and discuss organisms without ambiguity. Before the establishment of formal systems, organisms were often identified using vernacular Ensuring Clarity and Precision: The use of names, which varied significantly across regions and a standardized system, with precise names languages. This lack of standardization hindered and ranks for organisms, eliminates the scientific communication. Latin, the language of confusion that can arise from regional scholarship at the time, offered a more stable variations in common names or different alternative and saw increasing use in scientific languages. This system allows for clear descriptions. However, early attempts at scientific communication about specific organisms, naming, using Latin, often resulted in long, regardless of location or language barriers. cumbersome descriptions that were difficult to Uniqueness, Stability, and Universality: A remember and apply consistently. key objective of nomenclature is to establish names that are unique to each organism and A pivotal shift occurred in the 18th century with remain stable over time, even as our Carl Linnaeus's taxonomic system, which understanding of their evolutionary introduced binomial nomenclature. Linnaeus's relationships evolves. This stability is system, exemplified in his work "Species Plantarum" essential for maintaining continuity and (1753), provided each species with a unique accuracy within scientific literature. two-part name consisting of the genus and species. Preventing Confusion and Ambiguity: The This simple yet elegant solution revolutionized use of distinct, unambiguous names helps biological naming, providing a concise and organized avoid errors in research and communication. method for identifying and classifying organisms. This is particularly important given the vast diversity of life and the potential for The Necessity for Universal Standards: Avoiding confusion when using common names, the "Tower of Babel" which can vary widely across different regions and languages. The success of Linnaeus's system highlighted the Promoting Stability and Universality: The need for universal codes to govern scientific ultimate goal is to create a system of naming naming. Without clear rules, inconsistencies and that is universally accepted and applied, contradictions would inevitably arise, creating a fostering collaboration and understanding "Tower of Babel" scenario where scientific among the global scientific community. This communication breaks down. This need for shared language of nomenclature facilitates standardization led to the development of separate the exchange of information and research nomenclature codes for different branches of biology. findings, advancing our collective knowledge of the natural world. The establishment of International Codes of C. Nomenclature Nomenclature, such as the ICN for plants, algae, and Codes International Codes of Nomenclature: A ensuring they remain relevant and Foundation for Clarity and Stability adaptable. Today, various International Codes of Nomenclature provide the framework for naming organisms. These include: differences: International Code of Nomenclature for Independent Codes: The most notable algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) under the difference is the independence of the two Shenzen Code of 2018: This code, formerly codes. This means a genus name can be known as the International Code of Botanical used for both a plant and an animal without Nomenclature (ICBN), governs the naming violating either code. This is illustrated by of algae, fungi, and plants, including land examples like Phoebe, which refers to both a plants, slime molds, and water molds. genus of tyrant flycatchers and a genus in International Code of Zoological the laurel family, and Pieris, which Nomenclature (ICZN): This code regulates represents both a genus of butterflies and a the naming of animals, providing a genus in the heath family. standardized system for zoological Scope and Rank Regulation: The ICN nomenclature. regulates names from Division to subform, International Code of Nomenclature of while the ICZN governs names from Bacteria: This code specifically addresses Superfamily to subspecies. the naming conventions for bacteria. Requirements for Valid Publication: The ICN requires a Latin diagnosis for valid Additionally, separate codes exist for viruses and publication, while the ICZN does not. domesticated animals, ensuring clarity and Additionally, the ICN prohibits tautonyms consistency across all biological disciplines. (identical genus and species names), while the ICZN allows them. Comparing and Contrasting Botanical and Orthographic Conventions: The codes Zoological Codes: Shared Goals, Distinct differ in the standardized endings used for Approaches higher taxa. For instance, the ICN uses "-ales" for Order, "-aceae" for Family, and similarities: "-oideae" for Subfamily, while the ICZN does not have standardized endings for these Unique Scientific Names: Both the ICN and ranks. ICZN prioritize assigning each species a Italics Usage: The ICZN recommends using unique scientific name in Latin to prevent italics only for genus and species ranks, ambiguity. while the ICN encourages, though does not Latin as the Universal Language: Both mandate, the use of italics for all ranks. codes mandate the use of Latin names for Fossil Nomenclature: The ICN prioritizes all taxa, ensuring consistency and avoiding names based on Recent types over those linguistic barriers in scientific communication. based on fossil types, except for algae, while Rules for Publication and Typification: the ICZN has no such rule. Both codes establish clear rules for the formal publication of new names and emphasize the concept of typification, where each name is linked to a specific II. Key Concepts in Nomenclature specimen or group of specimens. Chronological Starting Points: Both systems recognize a specific chronological A. Scientific Names starting point for valid publication, providing a fixed reference for priority of names. Scientific Names: A Foundation of Administrative System: Dedicated Biological Nomenclature committees oversee the interpretation and improvement of their respective codes, Definition and Purpose Scientific names are the formally recognized To distinguish scientific names from common names, names given to organisms, assigned according to the they are typically italicized in printed text. When rules established by the relevant International Code writing by hand, underlining serves the same of Nomenclature. These names serve as a purpose. While the botanical code encourages italics universal language, allowing scientists worldwide to for all ranks, the zoological code only recommends it communicate unambiguously about specific for genus and species. Bolding is also acceptable for organisms, regardless of their location or the common scientific names. names used in different languages. This system helps prevent the confusion that can arise from regional Reasons for Changes in Scientific Names: variations in common names, which may refer to Reflecting Evolving Knowledge different species or lack precision. Scientific names are not static. They can change over Structure of Binomials time due to: The most widely used format for scientific names is Increased Scientific Understanding: New the binomial system, first consistently employed by discoveries, such as the reclassification of a Linnaeus in the 18th century. A binomial, meaning species based on genetic analysis or "two names", consists of two parts: morphological observations, may necessitate a name change. As our understanding of 1. Genus name: This is the first part of the evolutionary relationships and species name, always capitalized, and represents a concepts deepens, adjustments to group of closely related species. For nomenclature reflect these advancements. example, Quercus is the genus name for Correct Application of Nomenclature oaks. Codes: Sometimes, names are changed to 2. Specific epithet: This is the second part of comply with the rules and regulations the name, not capitalized, and is unique outlined in the International Codes of within the genus. It often describes a Nomenclature. This ensures that names are characteristic of the species, its geographic correctly applied and that priority of location, or honors a person. For instance, in publication is followed. For example, if an Quercus dumosa, dumosa is the specific older, validly published name for a species is epithet, possibly referring to its shrubby discovered, it may replace a more recently growth habit. used one.. Together, the genus name and specific epithet form Two Basic Activities of the ICN: the species name, the most basic unit in biological classification. The author of the species name may 1. Naming new taxa: The ICN provides rules also be included, often abbreviated, after the and recommendations for assigning names binomial. to newly discovered plant taxa. This involves establishing a unique binomial name for Latin: The Language of Scientific Tradition each new species, consisting of the genus and species epithet, written in Latin and Latin is the language used for scientific names in adhering to specific formatting conventions. both the botanical and zoological codes. Although no 2. Determining the correct name for longer actively spoken, Latin's historical role as the previously named taxa (altered in some language of scholars gives it a timeless quality and way): The ICN also governs situations makes it universally understood within the scientific where the name of an existing taxon needs community. This consistency ensures that names clarification or revision. This might occur due remain stable over time and avoids potential to new scientific discoveries, changes in confusion from changing linguistic conventions. species concepts, or the need to correct errors or homonyms in previous naming. Italics and Underlining: Emphasizing Scientific Names Legitimate and Illegitimate Names:  Legitimate Names: These names are 2. Typification: A fundamental principle of assigned in accordance with the rules plant nomenclature is the association of outlined in the ICN. This includes adhering to names with nomenclatural types. This the principles of binomial nomenclature, means that each name, at the rank of genus using the correct Latin form and grammar, and below, is linked to a specific specimen or and ensuring the name is effectively illustration, designated as the type, that published according to the ICN's criteria. serves as a reference point for that name. Illegitimate Names: These names violate This concept is crucial for resolving one or more rules stipulated by the ICN. taxonomic disputes, as the type specimen Such violations might involve using a name acts as the definitive representation of a that is a later homonym of an existing name, particular species. For instance, a specimen failing to provide a Latin description or described by Linnaeus himself serves as the diagnosis, or not properly indicating the type for Borago officinalis L., which in turn is nomenclatural type. The ICN aims to prevent the type for the genus Borago L., further the use of illegitimate names to maintain extending to become the type for the family clarity and avoid confusion within the Boraginaceae Jussieu. This hierarchical scientific community. typification ensures a clear and traceable lineage of names. It's important to remember that a name can be legitimate without being the correct name for a 3. Priority of Publication: Botanical taxon. A correct name is a legitimate name that has nomenclature adheres to the principle of been accepted by a particular author or group of priority, meaning that the earliest validly authors. In cases where multiple legitimate names published name for a taxon is generally exist for the same taxon, the principle of priority often considered the legitimate one. This dictates that the oldest validly published name takes underscores the importance of publication precedence. However, exceptions exist, such as the date in establishing naming rights. However, conservation of well-known and widely used names, the sources do acknowledge that strict even if a prior, less-known name exists. adherence to priority can lead to instability in cases where a long-established name is superseded by a newly discovered, earlier Principles of Plant published one. Nomenclature 4. Unique Name per Taxon: Each plant taxon, defined by its circumscription (the Principles governing the assignment of plant names, characteristics that define it), position within primarily focusing on the rules and recommendations the taxonomic hierarchy, and rank, can have prescribed by the International Code of Nomenclature only one correct name at a time. This for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN), previously known principle, termed the "Fundamental as the ICBN. Principle", aims to eliminate ambiguity by ensuring that each plant group bears a Six Core Principles: single accepted name. 1. Independence from Other Codes: 5. Latin as the Scientific Language: Scientific Botanical nomenclature operates names of plants are treated as Latin, independently of zoological and regardless of their origin. This convention bacteriological nomenclature. While there stems from the historical use of Latin as the may be overlap in names across kingdoms language of scholarship and its role in early (e.g., Morus refers to both a mulberry plant scientific works. Using Latin provides a and a gannet bird), the codes governing their universal language for scientific naming are distinct. This underscores the communication, transcending regional specialized nature of naming conventions for language barriers. It is important to note that different branches of life. the use of the Latin alphabet and grammar are essential components of plant  nomenclature. Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN). However, the International Code of Zoological 6. Retroactive Application: A key aspect of Nomenclature (ICZN) does not have standardized the ICN is its retroactive nature, meaning endings for these ranks. that its rules and regulations apply to names published before its inception. This principle Rank Endings in Botanical Nomenclature ensures that even older names are subject to the same scrutiny and standardization as The sources provide the following standardized newer ones, promoting consistency across endings used in botanical names from Division to botanical literature. Subtribe: Division: -phyta/-mycota1 (for fungi) or B. Ranks and Position -phyceae2 (for algae) Subdivision: -phytina Class: -opsida/-mycetes1/-phyceae Understanding Ranks and Position in Subclass: -idea/-mycetidae1/-phycidae Biological Classification Superorder: -anae Order: -ales Definition and Hierarchy Suborder: -ineae Family: -aceae In biological classification, rank refers to the Subfamily: -oideae hierarchical level assigned to a taxon, reflecting its Tribe: -eae relative inclusiveness. Higher ranks encompass a Subtribe: -inae broader range of organisms, while lower ranks represent increasingly specific and closely related Zoological Rank Endings from Phylum to groups. This hierarchical structure, often depicted as a nested system, helps organize the immense Subtribe ​ Phylum/Division: There is no specific ending diversity of life into manageable categories based on for this rank in zoological nomenclature. shared characteristics and evolutionary relationships. ​ Class: There is no specific ending for this rank in zoological nomenclature. Position, on the other hand, indicates the placement ​ Subclass: There is no specific ending for this of a taxon within the hierarchical framework relative to rank in zoological nomenclature. other taxa. For example, two genera might share the ​ Superorder: There is no specific ending for this same rank (genus) but occupy different positions rank in zoological nomenclature. within the hierarchy due to their classification in ​ Superfamily: -oidea distinct families. This concept is exemplified by Aster ​ Family: -idae and Rosa, both belonging to the genus rank but ​ Subfamily: -inae positioned within Asteraceae and Rosaceae families, ​ Tribe: -ini respectively. ​ Subtribe: -ina Major Ranks and Standardized Endings: A System of Order and Recognition Bacteriological Rank Endings: Phylum to The major ranks in biological classification, from the Subtribe broadest to the most specific, are: Kingdom, Phylum The provided source, , does not specify standardized (Division in botany), Class, Order, Family, Genus, and endings for bacteriological names for the ranks of Species. These ranks represent fundamental levels of Phylum, Class, Subclass, and Superorder. However, organization within the biological world. from Order to Subtribe, the endings are as follows: ​ Order: -ales To facilitate recognition and maintain consistency, ​ Suborder: -ineae standardized endings are often used for certain ranks, ​ Family: -aceae particularly in botany. For example, Order names ​ Subfamily: -oideae typically end in "-ales," Family names in "-aceae," and ​ Tribe: -eae Subfamily names in "-oideae" in the International ​ Subtribe: -inae  In biological nomenclature, authorship holds significant weight, referring to the name of the person (or persons) who first validly published a specific scientific name. It's an integral part of the Alternate Family and Subfamily Names: Historical scientific naming process, serving not just as a form Variations of credit but also as a key to understanding the history and evolution of a name. In some cases, alternate names for families and subfamilies exist, reflecting historical variations or The importance of citing authorship stems from the changes in classification. For instance, Apiaceae is need for clarity, traceability, and accountability in also known as Umbelliferae, Arecaceae as Palmae, scientific work. By associating a name with a Asteraceae as Compositae, Brassicaceae as published taxon, one can track back to the original Cruciferae, and so on. These alternative names often description, examine the evidence upon which the stem from distinctive morphological features of the classification was based, and understand potential included taxa or earlier naming conventions. revisions or reinterpretations made over time. Understanding these synonyms is crucial for interpreting older literature and navigating taxonomic Abbreviating Author Names for Efficiency databases. While author names are crucial, writing out full names Ternary Names (Subspecies and Variety): every time a species is mentioned would be Infraspecific Variation cumbersome. To address this, a system of abbreviation for author names is employed. Ternary names, consisting of three parts, are used to Standard abbreviations are used for commonly cited denote infraspecific taxa, representing variations authors, such as "L." for Linnaeus or "R. Br." for within a species. The two most common infraspecific Robert Brown. ranks are subspecies (subsp. or ssp.) and variety (var.). For less frequent authors, the abbreviation usually involves the first letter of the first name followed by A subspecies typically designates a geographically the full last name. For instance, "A. Gray" stands for distinct population exhibiting consistent morphological Asa Gray. Standardized abbreviations can be found in or genetic differences from other populations within resources like the International Plant Names Index the species. In contrast, a variety often denotes a (IPNI), ensuring consistency and ease of reference. group within a species that shares a particular morphological characteristic but may not be D. Types geographically isolated. Defining Nomenclature Types and Understanding For example, Toxicodendron radicans subsp. Their Purpose diversilobum indicates a subspecies of poison ivy with the subspecific epithet "diversilobum", while Brickellia In biological nomenclature, a "nomenclature type", arguta var. odontolepis represents a variety of the or simply "type", is a crucial concept tied to the species Brickellia arguta with the varietal epithet naming of taxa. It refers to a specific element "odontolepis". Both subspecies and variety names associated with a scientific name, acting as a follow the genus and species name, forming a reference point for the application of that name. In trinomial. most cases, this element is a physical specimen, carefully preserved and deposited in a publicly C. Authorship accessible collection, such as a herbarium for plants. Authorship in Biological Nomenclature The purpose of designating types is to provide a tangible and objective standard for a given name. Defining and Emphasizing the Importance of Since taxonomic interpretations and circumscriptions Authorship of taxa can evolve over time, having a physical specimen linked to the name ensures stability and clarity. By referring back to the type specimen, researchers can clarify doubts about the identity of a the holotype, paratypes provide additional taxon or resolve ambiguities that may arise from context and can be useful in understanding varying interpretations of morphological descriptions. the variation within a taxon. Epitype: In cases where the existing types Different Types of Types (holotype, lectotype, or neotype) are ambiguous or insufficient for a clear and There are various categories of types, each with a accurate definition of the taxon, an epitype specific meaning and purpose: can be designated. This is typically a more recently collected specimen or illustration Holotype: This is the principal type, chosen to provide a clearer understanding of representing the single specimen or the taxon's characteristics and boundaries. illustration designated by the author as the name-bearing type at the time of valid Taxonomic Ranks Having Types publication. The holotype serves as the definitive reference point for the name and is Nomenclature types are applied to all taxonomic given paramount importance in taxonomic ranks up to the family level. This means that a decisions. specimen can be designated as the type for a Isotype: An isotype is a duplicate species, genus, family, and so on. However, ranks specimen of the holotype, collected at the higher than family do not have designated types. This same time and from the same population by hierarchy of types helps establish a clear and the same person. Isotypes are valuable as traceable connection between a name and its they provide additional material for study and corresponding biological entity, providing a robust can be distributed to different herbaria, framework for taxonomic stability and accuracy. increasing accessibility for researchers worldwide. E. Priority of Publication Lectotype: In instances where a holotype was not designated at the time of publication, or if the holotype is missing, a lectotype is selected from the original Understanding Priority of material to serve as the name-bearing type. Publication in Biological The lectotype is chosen based on specific criteria outlined in the International Code of Nomenclature Nomenclature, ensuring a clear and unambiguous reference point for the name. Defining Priority of Publication and its Importance Neotype: A neotype is designated when all for Nomenclatural Stability original material (holotype, isotypes, and any syntypes) associated with a name is missing. Priority of Publication is a fundamental principle in The neotype must be chosen from a biological nomenclature, stating that the first validly non-original collection and should ideally published name for a taxon (provided it meets all be closely linked to the original description or other requirements of the relevant code) has protologue of the species. priority and is considered the legitimate name. Syntype: When multiple specimens were This principle is crucial for maintaining stability and cited in the original publication and the clarity in scientific naming, preventing confusion author did not specifically designate a arising from multiple names being assigned to the holotype, each of those specimens is same organism. considered a syntype. Isosyntype: An isosyntype is essentially a Imagine a scenario where scientists working in duplicate of a syntype, holding similar different parts of the world independently discover and significance in terms of representing the name the same plant species. Without a system of original material. priority, each scientist would continue using their Paratype: Specimens cited in the original given name, leading to confusion and hindering publication that are not the holotype, isotype, scientific communication. Priority of publication or syntype are termed paratypes. While not ensures that only one name, the earliest validly carrying the same nomenclatural weight as published one, is recognized, preventing a chaotic Understanding the Reasons for Name Changes in multiplicity of names for the same entity. Biological Classification Starting Point and Exceptions: Tracing the Roots Name changes in biological classification can occur of Botanical Nomenclature for several reasons, often stemming from new discoveries or changes in taxonomic understanding: In botanical nomenclature, the starting point for priority of publication is generally accepted as 1 May 1. Name Contrary to the Rules: If a name is 1753, coinciding with the publication of "Species found to be illegitimate – for instance, if it Plantarum" by Linnaeus. This work marked a was not validly published or violates other turning point in botanical taxonomy, introducing a rules outlined in the International Code of consistent binomial system for naming plants. Nomenclature – it needs to be changed. 2. Advances in Research: As our However, it is important to note that there are understanding of evolutionary relationships exceptions to this starting point. Certain groups of and species boundaries evolves with new organisms have different starting dates for priority, research, taxonomic classifications might be often reflecting the publication of seminal works that revised. This can lead to changes in species established nomenclatural stability within those circumscriptions, resulting in the transfer of a groups. Additionally, some names are considered species to a different genus or the valid even if published before the established starting recognition of previously unknown taxa, point, usually because they were adopted by necessitating name changes to reflect the Linnaeus or in other significant early works. These updated taxonomy. exceptions are detailed in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN). Adverse Consequences of Strict Priority and the F. Synonyms Conservation of Names While the principle of priority aims for stability, strictly Synonyms in Biological Nomenclature adhering to it can sometimes lead to undesirable consequences. There might be instances where an Definition of Synonyms and Reasons for older, less widely used name takes precedence over Rejection a more familiar and widely established name for a taxon. Such changes can cause significant disruption In biological nomenclature, synonyms are different in scientific communication, necessitating extensive scientific names that have been used to refer to the cross-referencing and potentially leading to confusion same taxon. They arise due to a variety of reasons, among researchers. including: To mitigate such situations, the conservation of Historical reasons: Before standardized names is implemented. This practice allows for the nomenclature, different naturalists might official suppression of an older name in favor of a have given different names to the same later, more widely used name. Decisions regarding species. conservation are typically made by international Taxonomic revisions: Changes in our committees responsible for overseeing the relevant understanding of evolutionary relationships Codes of Nomenclature and are based on factors like or species boundaries can lead to a species widespread usage, nomenclatural stability, and being transferred to a different genus, potential disruption caused by a name change. creating a synonym. Misidentification: Sometimes, a species The rationale behind conserving names is to promote might be misidentified and given a new stability and clarity in scientific communication. By name, which later is recognized as a preserving well-established names, even if not having synonym of an existing species. strict priority, unnecessary confusion and disruption are avoided, facilitating smoother communication and The existence of synonyms can create confusion in research within the scientific community. scientific communication. To ensure clarity, nomenclatural codes like the ICN (International Code Homonyms and Tautonyms of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants) establish a system of priority, giving precedence to the earliest Definition of a Homonym validly published name. The other names become rejected synonyms. In biological nomenclature, a homonym is a name for a taxon that is identical in spelling to another name Types of Synonyms: Homotypic and Heterotypic that has been validly published for a different taxon. Synonyms are classified into two main types: Example: Eritrichium hispidum Phillippi, 1860 and Eritrichium hispidum Buckley, 1862 1. Homotypic synonyms (nomenclatural are homonyms. Both have the same name, synonyms): These synonyms are based on but they refer to different plants. the same type specimen. This means they were originally described from the same Homonyms can create significant confusion in the physical specimen, even though they might scientific literature. To resolve this, the principle of have been assigned to different groups at priority is applied, and the later homonym is rejected different times. For example, in, Cryptantha as illegitimate. decipiens (M.E. Jones) A. Heller and Krynitzkia decipiens M.E. Jones are Definition of a Tautonym and its Illegitimacy in homotypic synonyms because they are both ICN based on the same type specimen originally described by M.E. Jones. A tautonym is a scientific name in which the genus 2. Heterotypic synonyms (taxonomic and specific epithets are identical in spelling. For synonyms): These synonyms are based on example, Helianthus helianthus would be a tautonym. different type specimens. This means they were originally described from different Tautonyms are not permitted in the ICN. This is physical specimens. Their synonymy arises because they are considered to be redundant and from later taxonomic judgments that consider potentially confusing. them to represent the same taxon. provides an example: Aesculus mohavensis (Greene Examples of Tautonyms and Non-Tautonyms Mill.) and Cryptantha fallax Greene are heterotypic synonyms as they are based on Example of an illegitimate tautonym: different type specimens, though they are Helianthus helianthus (not a real species!) now considered the same species. would be a tautonym because the genus and species names are identical. Examples of Synonyms Example of a permitted non-tautonym: Ziziphus zizyphus (L.) H. Karst. (Jujube) is Example of a homotypic synonym: In, not a tautonym, even though the genus and Malacothrix incana (Nutt.) Torrey & A. Gray species names are very similar. This is and Malacomeris incanus Nutt. are because the species name "zizyphus" is homotypic synonyms, meaning they are both derived from the pre-existing genus Ziziphus. based on the same original specimen named The ICN permits such names. by Nuttall. Example of heterotypic synonyms: Also in, Porophyllum gracile Benth. and P. caesium Greene; P. vaseyi Greene are heterotypic synonyms. They were originally H. Basionyms and Autonyms described as different species but later taxonomic work combined them. Basionyms and Autonyms Explained G. Homonyms and What is a Basionym and Why is it Important? Tautonyms In biological taxonomy, a basionym serves as the original name given to a taxon, which, while possibly not accepted in its initial form, has parts of it used in a An autonym is an automatically created name for new combination. Think of it as the foundation upon infrafamilial, infrageneric, and infraspecific taxa, which a taxonomic name is built. generated when taxa are subdivided. They are essentially "leftover" names that are automatically For instance, a plant species might be initially assigned based on the principle of priority of classified under one genus, but further research might publication, ensuring that one part of the original reveal that it belongs to a different genus. When this taxon retains its name. happens, the original species epithet (the second part of the scientific name) is often retained but combined Creation of Autonyms: with the new genus name to form a new species name. This original species name, with its original Autonyms come into play when a taxon is divided. genus, then becomes the basionym for the newly The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature formed name. (ICBN) mandates that when a family, genus, or species is divided, one of the resulting subdivisions Importance of Basionyms: must retain the original name of the taxon. This becomes the autonym. The other subdivisions then Basionyms are essential for maintaining a clear and receive new names. traceable record of taxonomic changes. They allow us to follow the nomenclatural history of a taxon, Key Characteristics of Autonyms: understand how its classification has evolved over time, and avoid confusion that might arise from 1. Assigned based on priority of multiple names referring to the same organism. publication: The autonym is determined by the earliest validly published name within the How to Recognize a Basionym: original taxon. 2. No authors: Unlike most other scientific Basionyms are typically indicated in taxonomic names, autonyms are not attributed to a literature by enclosing the author citation of the specific author. original name within parentheses, following the new name. This signifies that the original author is credited Examples of Autonyms in Action: for the original name, even though the combination might have changed. 1. Dividing a species: Imagine a species named Lotus stipularis. If a taxonomist Examples of Basionyms: decides to divide this species into two varieties, one of them must retain the original The sources provide us with two concrete examples name: Lotus stipularis. This becomes the of basionyms: autonym. The other variety would then receive a new name, for example, Lotus 1. Sedum variegatum S. Watson, upon being stipularis var. ottleyi. moved to the genus Dudleya, becomes the 2. Splitting a family: If a family like basionym for the new name: Dudleya Euphorbiaceae is divided into subfamilies, variegata (S. Watson) Moran. Notice how the one of the subfamilies must become original epithet, variegata, remains, Euphorbioideae - the autonym - to maintain highlighting the link to the original name the original name within the new given by S. Watson. classification. 2. Similarly, when Muhlenbergia shepherdii (Vasey) is transferred to Blepharoneuron, the original name, published as Sporobolus shepherdii Vasey, is cited as the basionym I. Valid Publication for the new name: Blepharoneuron shepherdii (Vasey) P.M. Peterson & Annable. Valid Publication in Scientific Understanding Autonyms: Automatically Created Nomenclature Names in Taxonomy The Five Pillars of Valid Publication In the world of scientific naming, "valid publication" in either Latin or English, reflecting the holds immense importance, ensuring that names are evolving nature of scientific communication. established according to specific rules and are recognized as legitimate. 4. Rank Indication: Placing the Taxon in the Hierarchy Five main criteria that must be met for a scientific name to be considered validly published: The publication must clearly indicate the taxonomic rank of the new taxon. This is 1. Effective Publication: Reaching the typically done using standard abbreviations, Scientific Community such as "sp. nov." for "new species" or "subsp. nov." for "new subspecies". A name must be effectively published, meaning it needs to be published in a way 5. Nomenclatural Type Designation: that makes it readily available to the broader Providing a Reference Point botanical community. Traditionally, this involved publication in a printed, widely For taxa at the genus level and below, valid distributed journal. However, as of January publication necessitates indicating the 1, 2012, electronic material published online nomenclatural type, which is typically a in Portable Document Format (PDF) with an specific specimen or illustration that serves International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) as a reference point for defining the or an International Standard Book Number characteristics of that taxon. (ISBN) is considered a valid form of publication. What is a Protologue? 2. Correct Form: Adhering to Nomenclatural Standards The term protologue refers to the entirety of information associated with a scientific name at its The name itself must be published in the valid publication. This includes: correct form. This encompasses several aspects: A detailed description or diagnosis of the taxon. ○ Latinization: The name must be in Illustrations to visually represent the taxon. Latin or properly Latinized, References to previous work related to the conforming to the grammatical rules taxon. of scientific Latin, even if derived Synonymy, if any exists, listing other names from other languages. used for the same taxon. ○ Rank Ending: It must be Latinized Geographical data indicating where the with the correct rank ending. For taxon was found. instance, a family name in botany Citation of specimens examined during the must end in "-aceae." taxonomic study. 3. Latin Description or Diagnosis: Providing Any relevant discussion and comments Scientific Clarity made by the author(s) at the time of publication. To ensure clarity and universality, a valid publication requires a Latin description or The protologue, therefore, offers a comprehensive diagnosis of the new taxon, or at the very understanding of the context surrounding the least, a clear reference to such a description. publication of a new name. It allows other scientists to This allows scientists around the world to trace the origins of the name, examine the evidence understand the characteristics of the taxon and rationale behind its establishment, and access being named. However, it is common valuable information about the taxon in question. practice to also include a vernacular Examples of protologue elements, such as Latin and (common language) description for broader vernacular descriptions, the name in Latin, the rank, accessibility. As of January 1, 2012, the ICN and type specimen details, can be seen in annotated allows for the description or diagnosis to be examples of scientific publications.  Microseris elegans, which was initially J. Learning Scientific proposed but not validly published by Names Edward Lee Greene. "s.l.": An abbreviation for "sensu lato", Learning scientific names can feel like learning a new meaning "in the broad sense". This is used language, but the sources offer some methods to to denote a taxonomic grouping that make the process less daunting: encompasses a wide range of organisms, perhaps even including those that might be 1. Syllabization and Accent: Break down classified separately by other taxonomists. those long, intimidating names into For example, Boraginaceae s.l. might manageable syllables. Pay attention to the encompass families like Hydrophyllaceae, accented syllable, as this can help with both Ehretiaceae, Heliotropacaea, and pronunciation and memorization. Cordiaceae, which some taxonomists treat as distinct families. 2. Mnemonic Devices: Get creative and come "s.s." or "s.str.": Short for "sensu stricto," up with memorable associations. For meaning "in the narrow sense". This instance, you could use rhymes, songs, or abbreviation signals a more restricted even humorous stories to connect the name definition of a taxon, excluding certain to the plant's characteristics. subgroups that might be included in the broader definition. 3. Etymology: Unlocking the meaning behind "x": This simple symbol denotes a hybrid, the name can make it stick. Scientific names indicating that a plant originated from a cross often describe a plant's appearance, habitat, between two different species or taxa. For or even its discoverer. For example, example, Salvia x palmeri signals that this cardanus means 'of Card' and this can be plant is a hybrid resulting from a cross used to remember that Rubus cardianus was between Salvia apiana and Salvia named after Fred Wallace Card. clevelandii. "sp. nov.": Stands for "species novum," 4. Practice and Review: Repetition is key. meaning "new species". This abbreviation is Practice writing and reciting the names, both used to designate a newly described orally and in writing, to solidify them in your species. memory. "cf.": An abbreviation for "confer," meaning "compare." It's used when a specimen is tentatively identified and the author wants to draw attention to similarities with a known K. Common Abbreviations species, suggesting a comparison for in Botanical Nomenclature confirmation. "aff.": Short for "affine," meaning "related The sources provide definitions for these common to." It suggests that while a specimen might abbreviations: not belong to the species being referenced, it shares close affinities, indicating a close "in": This abbreviation indicates that a name evolutionary relationship. was published "in the publication of" a particular author. For example, "Arabis L. Independence and sparsiflora Nutt. in T. & G." means that Retroactivity of Botanical Thomas Nuttall published the name Arabis sparsiflora in a work authored by both Torrey Nomenclature and Gray. "ex": This abbreviation stands for "validly Independent Systems, Intertwined Histories: published by". It is used when an author has validated or adopted a name originally The sources emphasize the independence of proposed by another author. For example, botanical nomenclature from zoological and "Microseris elegans Greene ex A. Gray" tells bacteriological nomenclature. This means that the us that Asa Gray validly published the name same genus name can be used for both a plant and an animal without causing conflict. This is possible and below. This is because epithets because separate codes govern the naming of (species, subspecies, etc.) often need to organisms in these different kingdoms. agree in gender with the genus name they modify. For instance, if a genus name is Example: The sources offer the example of masculine, the specific epithet might need to Morus, which refers to both the mulberry tree take a masculine ending to maintain (a plant) and the gannet (a bird). Similarly, grammatical agreement. Ficus encompasses both figs (plants) and a specific group of gastropods (animals). Common Gender Endings: The sources provide a table outlining common masculine, Despite this independence, it's important to feminine, and neuter endings for Latin acknowledge that there are areas of overlap. For words. This can be a helpful resource when instance, both the botanical and zoological codes may trying to determine the gender of a particular deal with certain "Protista" (a diverse group of mostly genus name or ensuring grammatical unicellular eukaryotic organisms), highlighting the agreement within a scientific name. interconnectedness of life and the challenges of neatly classifying it into rigid categories. B. Commemorative Reaching Back in Time: The Retroactive Nature of the ICN Names: Honoring People and A crucial principle in botanical nomenclature is Places retroactivity. This means that the rules and recommendations outlined in the International Code A Lasting Tribute: Commemorative names of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) apply are used to honor a person or a specific retrospectively, even to names published before the place. These names add a personal touch to code's inception. This ensures consistency and the often-technical world of scientific naming, stability in plant names, even as our understanding of reflecting the contributions of individuals to plant relationships and the code itself evolves over botany or highlighting the geographical time. However, the retroactive application of rules can origins of certain plants. sometimes lead to changes in well-established names if they are found to conflict with earlier publications or Forming Commemorative Epithets: nomenclatural principles. ○ Specific and Infraspecific Levels: Commemorative names are frequently used for specific and infraspecific epithets. For example, III. Specific Rules and Conventions a botanist might name a newly discovered plant species after their A. The Significance of mentor. Gender in Latin Names ○ Genitive Case and Endings: Commemorative names at these Latin's Grammatical Legacy: Unlike levels are typically treated as English, Latin assigns a grammatical gender possessive nouns, requiring the use to nouns, with the primary categories being of the genitive case. This means masculine, feminine, and neuter. This has specific endings need to be added direct implications for botanical to the person's name, depending on nomenclature, as scientific names are the name's ending and the gender treated as Latin. of the genus. Gender and Agreement: While every Latin Examples and Rules: word has a gender, gender determination is mainly relevant for names at the genus level  ○ Vowel Endings: If the name ends in a vowel other than 'a,' an 'i' is added. Lilium grayi, for example, commemorates Asa Gray. If the name ends in 'a,' an 'e' is added, as Table of Common Endings and Their Associated in balansae for Mr. Balansa. Genders: ○ Consonant Endings: For names While the sources provide a table in listing common ending in a consonant, 'ii' is added, Latin endings and their associated genders, they lack such as in Rubus grimesii for Earl detailed explanations or examples of their application Jerome Grimes. An exception is in botanical nomenclature. The table is presented names ending in 'er,' where only 'i' below for reference: is added, as seen in Setaria faberi for Ernst Faber. Masculin Feminin Neute ○ Adjectival Usage: If a name is e e r used as an adjective modifying the genus, it needs to agree with the genus's gender. This might involve modifying the ending of the -us -a -un commemorative epithet to match the genus's gender. ○ Honoring Women: When using a -er -ra -rum woman's name in its substantive form (as a noun), the ending should follow the feminine genitive singular. However, when used -is -is -e adjectivally, the same rules as for a man's name apply. -r -ris -re Species Name Agreement with Genus Name Limitations of the Source Material: The species name in binomial nomenclature, also known as the specific descriptor, specific epithet Lack of Context: The sources primarily (botany), or specific name (zoology), must agree with focus on the broader rules and principles of the Latin gender of the genus name. This grammatical botanical nomenclature, with limited attention agreement ensures consistency and clarity in to specific Latin grammar rules. scientific naming conventions. Incomplete Information: They don't elaborate on how to determine the gender of If the genus name has a masculine gender, a Latin word based on its ending or provide the species name should typically end in -us, rules for all possible endings. For instance, -a, or -um. For example, Passer domesticus, endings like "-um" or "-ae," which are the house sparrow, illustrates this rule, common in higher taxonomic ranks, aren't where "Passer" is a masculine genus. included in the table. For feminine genus names, common species name endings include -is and -e. Neuter genus names often pair with species names ending in -or.  What is Nomenclature? Q&A Nomenclature refers to the system of assigning names to plants, utilizing a formal set of rules and conventions. It involves the development, application, and interpretation of these rules to ensure clarity, consistency, and universality in the naming of plant taxa. What is the name of the work providing Why nomenclature? the rules and recommendations for plant nomenclature? A standardized system of naming organisms is crucial in the field of biology to avoid confusion arising from The primary source of rules and recommendations for the use of varied common names for the same plant nomenclature is the International Code of species. Nomenclature ensures that each plant Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN), species has a unique and universally recognized formerly known as the International Code of Botanical scientific name. This system provides stability by Nomenclature (ICBN). promoting the use of consistent, unambiguous names across different geographical locations and languages. What organisms are covered by the ICN? The ICN covers the naming of land plants, algae, and Why do names change? fungi (including slime molds and water molds). Scientific names aren't static; they can change due to several factors: What are two basic activities governed by the ICN? ○ Increased scientific The ICN focuses on two fundamental understanding: As our knowledge activities related to plant names: of plant relationships and evolution expands, names may need revision ○ Naming new taxa: This activity to reflect new classifications or involves establishing formal insights into a species' concept. For scientific names for newly example, what was once discovered plant species or groups. considered a single species might This process is crucial to ensure be reclassified as two distinct that each new discovery has a species based on genetic analysis unique and unambiguous name, or morphological differences. preventing confusion with existing ○ Correct application of taxa. The ICN provides rules and nomenclatural codes: Sometimes, recommendations on forming these names change due to the need to names, ensuring they conform to adhere to the rules laid out by the standardized conventions. ICN. This might involve correcting ○ Determining the correct name for past errors, such as the use of previously named taxa (altered in homonyms (identical names for some way): This second activity different plants), or ensuring that deals with situations where existing names are typified (linked to a plant names require revision or specific specimen). clarification. This need might arise due to new scientific discoveries that change our understanding of a particular plant group, leading to  reclassifications or mergers. It could conflict (e.g., Morus refers to both a also involve correcting previous mulberry plant and a gannet bird). naming errors, such as homonyms ○ Typification: This principle (identical names for different emphasizes the critical link between plants). The ICN lays out guidelines a plant name (at the genus level for managing these changes, and below) and a physical prioritizing stability while upholding specimen or illustration designated the principles of scientific accuracy as its type. This type serves as the and consistency. reference point for the name, What are legitimate and illegitimate providing a concrete example of the names? species or group it represents. This link is essential for resolving ○ Legitimate Names: A name is taxonomic disagreements and considered legitimate when it is in ensuring that names are applied accordance with the rules set out by consistently. the ICN. These rules cover various ○ Priority of Publication: The ICN aspects, including proper Latin form generally recognizes the earliest and grammar, adherence to validly published name for a plant nomenclatural principles like taxon as the legitimate one. This typification, and compliance with principle underscores the publication standards. However, it's significance of proper scientific crucial to understand that a publication in establishing naming legitimate name isn't automatically rights. the correct name. ○ Unique Name per Taxon: Each ○ Illegitimate Names: In contrast, distinct plant taxon, defined by its illegitimate names violate one or characteristics, position in the more rules outlined in the ICN. This taxonomic hierarchy, and rank, is violation could stem from various entitled to only one correct name at reasons, like being a later any given time. This "Fundamental homonym (sharing the same name Principle" aims to eliminate with a different, previously named ambiguity and provide a single, plant), lacking a required Latin universally accepted name for each description, or failing to designate a plant group. nomenclatural type. The ICN aims ○ Latin as the Scientific Language: to prevent the use of illegitimate Plant names are treated as Latin, names to maintain clarity and irrespective of their origin. This prevent confusion. convention has historical roots in What are the Principles of Plant the use of Latin as the language of Nomenclature? scholarship. Adopting Latin provides a consistent and globally The sources outline six core principles understood language for botanical guiding the assignment and management of communication, transcending plant names, primarily as defined by the ICN: individual languages and promoting clarity in scientific literature. ○ Independence: Botanical ○ Retroactivity: A crucial aspect of nomenclature operates as a distinct the ICN is its retroactive nature. system, independent of codes This means that its rules and governing the naming of animals, recommendations apply to names bacteria, or other organisms. This published before the code's separation underscores the unique establishment or its revisions. This challenges and conventions within retroactivity ensures that even older botanical naming, recognizing that plant names are held to the same the same name might be used for a standards as newer ones, plant and an animal without causing  promoting consistency across What is the correct form of binomials? botanical nomenclature. What are the rules vs. recommendations The term "binomial" itself means "two of the ICN? names". The correct format for a binomial, or species name, consists of: The ICN distinguishes between two types of guidelines: 1. Genus name: Always capitalized and italicized (e.g., Quercus) ○ Rules: These are mandatory 2. Specific epithet: Not capitalized requirements that must be followed but also italicized (e.g., dumosa) to ensure that a plant name is 3. (Optional) Author citation: The validly published and accepted. name of the person who first validly They carry the weight of obligation, published the name often appears and failure to adhere to them can after the binomial, not italicized render a name illegitimate. (e.g., Nuttall). ○ Recommendations: Unlike rules, A complete example would be Quercus recommendations are not dumosa Nuttall. mandatory. They represent advice or suggestions on best practices to Name the reasons that common names promote clarity, consistency, and are disadvantageous? stability in plant nomenclature. While not obligatory, following these Common names, though widely used, recommendations is strongly present several drawbacks compared to encouraged. scientific names: What is a scientific name? 1. Lack of Universality: Common A scientific name is a formal name given to names vary drastically across a plant (or any organism) that follows a languages and regions, leading to standardized system of nomenclature, in this confusion and miscommunication. case, the rules and recommendations of the A single plant species might have ICN. These names: numerous common names, even within the same geographic area. ○ Are assigned based on the ICN's Scientific names, however, are rules. standardized and intended for ○ Use the Latin language. global use. For instance, Ipomoea Examples of scientific names include is universally recognized, while Malpighia (a genus of flowering plants), "Woodbine" or "Morning Glory" are Alliaceae (the onion family), and Zingiberales not. (the order containing ginger). 2. Inconsistency: A common name may refer to multiple, unrelated Who first consistently used binomials? species. For example, "hemlock" could refer to both Tsuga (a type of Linnaeus was the first to consistently utilize conifer) and Conium maculatum binomials for scientific names. While earlier (poison hemlock), despite their vast naturalists sometimes employed systems differences. Conversely, a single involving two or more names, Linnaeus species might have several formalized the binomial system in his works common names, making it difficult Species Plantarum (1753) and Systema to know precisely which plant is Naturae (1758). This system, still in use being discussed. today, revolutionized biological nomenclature 3. Absence of Rank Information: by providing a clear, concise, and universally Common names provide no clues applicable method for naming organisms. about a plant's classification within the taxonomic hierarchy (Kingdom, Phylum, Class, etc.). Scientific  names, with their standardized In biological taxonomy, ranks represent a endings (e.g., -aceae for families, hierarchical system for classifying -ales for orders), clearly indicate organisms. Each rank signifies a level of taxonomic relationships. inclusivity, with higher ranks encompassing 4. Many Organisms Lack Common broader groups and lower ranks representing Names: A significant portion of the more specific groups. The sources provide world's species, particularly those examples of ranks within the botanical code less familiar or newly discovered, (ICBN), which applies to plants, algae, and lack common names in any fungi. language. Scientific names fill this gap, providing a universal identifier While the specific names and order might even when common names are vary slightly between codes and kingdoms, a absent. general framework is as follows, from What is rank? highest to lowest rank: In biological classification, rank refers to the ○ Kingdom hierarchical level within the taxonomic ○ Phylum (also called Division in system. A higher rank encompasses a botany) broader range of organisms than a lower ○ Class one. The sources use the analogy of a ○ Order hierarchical classification, where each level ○ Family includes all the levels below it. For example, ○ Genus the rank of "family" is higher than the rank of ○ Species "genus", meaning that a family contains Within these major ranks, additional multiple genera within it. This hierarchical subdivisions like subphylum, superorder, structure, with its defined ranks, provides an subfamily, tribe, subgenus, section, and organized framework for understanding the more can be used to represent finer levels of relationships among various groups of classification. organisms. What is the rank of...? What is position? To determine the rank of a given taxonomic Position describes a taxon's placement as name, you can often look for standardized a member of a higher rank within the endings, especially for ranks like Order, taxonomic hierarchy. While two taxa might Family, and Tribe. share the same rank (e.g., both being genera), their positions within the system Please provide the taxonomic names you differ based on their evolutionary lineage and are interested in, and the sources will be shared characteristics. For instance, both used to determine their rank. Aster and Rosa are plant genera, but they occupy distinct positions: Aster belongs to What is a ternary name? the family Asteraceae, while Rosa is placed in Rosaceae. This distinction in position, A ternary name refers to a scientific name despite having the same rank, reflects their that includes three parts. It is used to denote separate evolutionary trajectories and a subspecies or variety, both of which differing features. represent ranks below the species level (infraspecific). A ternary name consists of: ○ The genus name Here are the answers to your questions, which are ○ The specific epithet primarily about scientific classification: ○ The subspecific or varietal epithet. Here are examples: What are the ranks?  ○ Toxicodendron radicans subsp. ○ Monardella linoides A. Gray ssp. diversilobum (diversilobum = erecta (Abrams) Elvin & A.C. subspecific epithet). Sanders ○ Brickellia arguta var. odontolepis "A. Gray" is the author of (odontolepis = varietal epithet). the species Monardella What is of higher rank? linoides. "Abrams" is the author of Determining which rank is higher involves the basionym (original understanding the hierarchical structure of name) for the subspecies taxonomic classification. As you move up the erecta. hierarchy, ranks become more inclusive. For "Elvin & A.C. Sanders" are example: the authors who made the combination, recognizing it ○ Family is a higher rank than as a subspecies of Genus, as a family includes Monardella linoides. multiple genera that share broader characteristics. Here are the answers to your questions, drawing on ○ Order is higher than Family the information provided in the sources: because an order encompasses multiple families with common How to learn scientific names: traits. To clarify your question: Please provide the Learning scientific names can seem specific ranks you'd like to compare. daunting, but the sources offer practical advice on how to approach this task. Here Authorship? are four key strategies suggested in the sources: In scientific nomenclature, authorship refers to the name of the person or people ○ Syllabize and accent: Breaking who first validly published a particular down long scientific names into scientific name. syllables and correctly placing the accent can make them easier to ○ This attribution acknowledges their pronounce and remember. For contribution to the field and instance, instead of trying to tackle provides a link to the original "Helianthus annuus" all at once, description and classification of the think of it as "He-li-an-thus organism. an-nu-us." Practice saying the ○ Authorship is typically written after name aloud, paying attention to the the scientific name, often syllables and emphasis. abbreviated, and not italicized. For ○ Use mnemonic devices: Creating example, "L." is commonly used to memorable associations can represent Carl Linnaeus. significantly aid recall. Try ○ In some cases, multiple authors connecting the scientific name to a may be listed, reflecting characteristic of the organism, its collaborations or revisions in common name, or even a funny naming. image that helps the name stick in ○ When a species is transferred to a your mind. For example, you might different genus or a name associate Tyrannidae, the family of undergoes a change in rank, the tyrant f