Syntax Notes PDF

**Syntax poznámky\ [1. ppt]**\ **Syntax**\ - a linguistic discipline which deals with **words in a** **sentence** from the pov of **sentence structure\ Morphology vs. Syntax\ - difference noun vs noun phrase\ - NOUN --** used in morphology to describe **a part of speech (sl.druh)\ - NOUN PHRASE --**...

**Syntax poznámky\ [1. ppt]**\ **Syntax**\ - a linguistic discipline which deals with **words in a** **sentence** from the pov of **sentence structure\ Morphology vs. Syntax\ - difference noun vs noun phrase\ - NOUN --** used in morphology to describe **a part of speech (sl.druh)\ - NOUN PHRASE --** used in syntax to describe **a sentence element (vetný člen)\ -** includes not only a noun itself but also its **modifiers (rozvíjajúce časti)\ - e.g.** book -- **a noun\ ** **a very old book** -- a noun phrase\ **examples**\ - **an adjective** -- pretty\ - **adverb** -- today\ - **verb** -- speak\ - **pronoun** -- he, she, it\ - **article** -- a, an, the\ - **preposition** -- on, in\ - **conjunction** -- and\ - **interjection** \- **a verb phrase** -- was trying\ **- a noun phrase** -- a dog with spots\ - **adverbial phrase** -- in a minute\ - **adjective phrase** -- incredibly stunning\ - **prepositional phrase** -- on the table\ **Morphologically defined**\ a very nice book\ **a** -- article, **very** -- adverb, **nice** -- adjective, **book** -- noun **Syntactically defined**\ - subject **A** **very nice book** was stolen yesterday.\ - subject complement Our family album is **a very nice book.\ **- object I bought **a very nice book** yesterday.\ - object complement I find your album **a very nice book.** **Basic terminology\ **- **a phrase** -- the smallest part in the syntax\ **- a clause** (vedľ.veta) -- larger part\ - **a sentence** (veta) -- even larger\ - **a context** -- the largest\ - we distinguish between **forms** + **types** of sentences\ **PHRASE** -- a group of words containing neither subject nor predicate\ - can function as **adjective, adverb, noun, verb**\ **CLAUSE** -- a group of words containing a subject and a predicate which may depend on other words for its meaning\ **SENTENCE** -- a group of words containing a subject and a predicate and expressing a complete thought\ **CONTEXT** -- the part of a text/statement that surround a particular word/passage and determines its meaning\ **Simple sentence\ **- the principal syntactical unit is the **sentence**\ - simple sentence is the smallest independent unit which has a **subject** + **finite verb** + **expresses a complete thought\ **- may also contain other sentence elements\ **Compound sentence (priraď. súvetie)\ **- if two or more simple sentences are joined by **a coordinating conjunction (priraď.spojka)\ Complex sentence (podraď.súvetie)**\ - if 2 sentences are joined by a **subordinating conjunction** (podr.spojka) one sentence is main and the other is dependent\ - e.g. Tom got up at 7. (simple sentence)\ Tom got up at 7 and/but John got up at 8. (compound sentence\ Although Tom got up at 7, he missed the bus. (complex sentence)\ **Classification of the simple sentence (forms of sentences)\ 1) Declarative sentences**\ - **affirmative**, **positive** -- Jack came yesterday.\ - **negative** -- Jack didn't come yesterday.\ - **passive** -- Jack was given a book.\ **2) Interrogative sentences, questions\ ** - Did Jack come yesterday?\ **3) Imperative sentences, commands\ ** - Jack come here!\ **4) Exclamatory sentences, exclamations\ ** - How interesting it is!\ **According to the function in a sentence and according to their mutual relationship**\ **1) Principal parts of the sentence** subject + predicate\ **2) Secondary parts** object + attribute + apposition + adverbial modifiers + complements\ **3) Detached parts** (samost.vetné členy)\ **4) Amorphous sentences** (neúplné vety\ **5) Parenthetical elements** (vsuvky) **Principal parts of the sentence -- zákl. vetné členy\ Subject S** -- podmet **Predicate P** -- prísudok\ **The students listened attentively to the lecture.** **Secondary parts/elements\ Object** O -- predmet direct Od\ indirect Oi\ **Subject complement** Cs **Object complement** Co\ **Attribute** -- prívlastok **Apposition** -- prístavok\ **Adverbial/adverbial modifiers of:**\ **1) time** -- prísl. urč. času\ **2) place** -- miesta\ **3) manner** -- spôsobu\ **4) degree** -- miery\ **5) cause and purpose** -- príčiny a účelu\ **6) condition and concession** -- podmienky a prípustky **Subject may be formed by\ 1) a noun phrase** -- **A boy** is swimming across the river.\ **2) a proper noun** -- **Peter** is swimming across the river.\ **3) a personal pronoun** -- **He** is swimming.\ **4) an interrogative pronoun** -- **Who** is swimming?\ **5) a possessive pronoun** -- **Mine** is the book.\ **6) a demonstrative -- These** are my books.\ **7) a negative pronoun** -- **No one** is swimming.\ **8) a quantifier -- A lot** has changed since then. **Less** is sometimes more\ **9) a numeral -- Six** and **six** is/are twelve.\ **10) 's genitive** -- **John's** is the responsibility for it. (awkward)\ **11) a substantivized adjective** (spodstatnené príd. m) -- **The rich** are cowardly.\ **12) an adverbial of time** -- **Before Christmas** is the proper time to do it.\ **13) an adverbial of place** -- **In front of the school** is the place of our meeting.\ **14) an adverbial quasi subject** (nepravý príslovkový podmet)\ - in colloquial English, what immediately precedes the verbs is considered to be a subject\ - the real subject is that which follows, hence the use of the singular as well as plural verb form\ - Here/There/Where is/are **the boys.**\ **15) there and it are also used as subject** -- they help to start a sentence\ - There is my sister who lives with us.\ - It was John who did it.\ **16) an interjection** -- **Your unending ha-ha** makes me nervous.\ **17) a superfluous, redundant subject** (nadbytočný podmet) -- **Pat and Harry, they** are working abroad.\ **18) a finite clause (**vedľajšia veta s určitým slovesným tvarom) -- **That he is swimming in this river** is not surprising.\ **19) a non-finite clause** (vedľajšia veta s neurčitým slovesným tvarom\ - **Swimming in this river** is dangerous. (more common)\ - **To swim in this river** is dangerous. (less common) **Predicate may be formed by\ 1) a full/lexical verb** -- She **goes** to school every day\ **2) a combination** **of a full verb and auxiliary**\ - She **will go** to school every day.\ - She **must have been sleeping** there.\ **3) a progressive/passive verb phrase\ ** - They **might have been doing** it.\ - The problem **was discussed** at the club meeting. **Object**\ - an element affected by the action of the verb\ - either **direct object** (Od) in the accusative casedirect object, serving as an attribute to the subject/direct object\ - the complement that modifies the **subject** **subject complement --** **Cs**\ - -//- the **object** **object complement -- Co\ a) the SUBJECT complement can be represented by\ 1) a noun phrase\ ** - Peter became **a chairman of the firm.\ ** - He is **a very good student.\ ** - She made **an excellent lawyer.\ 2) an adjective phrase\ ** - John is **very happy\ ** - She looks **rather old** for her age.\ - His hair turned **white**.\ **3) a personal pronoun in a subjective/objective case**\ - It is **I**\ - It is **me**\ **4) a reflexive pronoun\ ** - It's **myself**\ - He doesn't look **himself** today\ **5) a demonstrative**\ - That's **that**.\ **6) an adverb\ ** - I am **well**\ **7) a noun preceded by a preposition\ ** - It smells of **plum brandy.**\ **8) a numeral**\ - Raymond is going on **twenty**\ - It went **six** when he came\ **9) a past participle\ ** - You may rest **assured**.\ - He passed **unnoticed**\ - This case remained **unsolved**\ **10) a clause\ ** - She is **what most people would call interesting**,....\ **b) the OBJECT complement may be formed by\ 1) a noun phrase\ ** - They appointed Lord Harrison **Prime Minister.\ ** - She found him **a very knowledgeable person\ 2) a proper noun**\ - She calls her son **Johnny**\ - They named the ship **Victoria**\ **3) an adjective phrase\ ** - I find your garden **fairly small**\ - We consider him **very old**\ - Mother often serves coffee **cold**\ **4) a past participle\ ** - He found his car **stolen**\ - They had/got their house **painted**\ - The publisher made it **known**\ **5) a quantifier -** I find it **too much**\ **6) a numeral** - I consider her (to be) **thirty**.\ **7) a pronoun** - I consider her **somebody**. **The attribute (prívlastok)\ **- not treated separately as an independent sentence element\ - often makes part of other sentence elements: subject, object, subject + object complement\ - He bought a **nice** car.\ (the attribute **nice** is not an independent syntactic element, but it makes part of the direct object: **a nice car**)\ - it describes a noun/pronoun and determines their meaning when these function as any sentence element\ - if there is no noun, it can be substituted by the word **one/ones**\ I have **a blue suit** and you have **a brown one.\ ** Jean has **an old doll** and Mary has **two ones.\ - can be formed by:\ 1) an adjective\ ** - There is **an old man** at the door.\ - The **damaged car** is under repair\ **2) a pronoun\ ** - Is this **your** **hat**?\ - Are there **any** **pictures** on the first page of the course book?\ **3) a numeral** - There were **two women** in the bus.\ **4) an adverb** - **the** **up train**\ **5) an adverbial phrase** -- **the post-war world\ ** **6) a noun in a direct case** -- What **a nice table lamp** you have!\ **7) a noun in a genitive case** -- You must take **the doctor's advice\ 8) a noun in a prepositional case** -- **The problem under discussion, secretary to the minister\ ** **9) an infinitive** -- You have **no reason to complain**\ **10) a gerund after a preposition** -- There was **no possibility of making** **up** for lost time\ **11) a group of words** -- a **word for word translation** **The apposition (prístavok)**\ - a special type of attribute\ - can be **loose**/**tight**\ **1) loose apposition** -- follows after a noun and is separated by a comma\ - Shakespeare, **the greatest English playwright,....**\ **2) tight apposition** -- placed usually before a noun and it is not separated by a comma\ - **King John, the dramatist Shaw, the river Thames\ ** - can be expressed by using **of**\ - **the city of London, the month of February, all of us** **Adverbial\ **- modifies a **verb**\ **- can be formed by:\ 1) a prepositional phrase\ ** - They usually come **at half past six.\ ** - She put it **by the door.\ ** - The dog is lying **under the table.\ 2) an adverb phrase**\ - He has done it **properly**.\ - Our son is doing **fairly well** at school.\ - The mountain eagle flies **high**.\ **3) a noun phrase** **- Last week** there was a meeting here.\ **4) a clause of time** -- He came when everyone was at school\ **5) a clause of place** -- It was **where we met.** **Free parts of a sentence**\ - have no grammatical connection with the other sentence elements\ - in written form they are separated by **punctuation** **commas, dashes\ **- there are **1 ) Detached parts of the sentence 2) Amorphous sentences 3) Parenthetical elements** **1) Detached parts of the sentence\ **- any sentence element can become a detached part of a sentence, if it is given in advance or additionally enclosed\ - in English it can be mostly **an adverbial, an attribute, an object\ ** He sat alone, **a cigar between his lips.\ ** He became conscious of music, **very soft, lovely.**\ **2) Amorphous sentences\ **- sentence units in which some important **sentence element is omitted**\ - the existence of the sentence element is obvious from **the context/situation**\ - very common is spoken English\ - e.g. A: It's a pity you won't come. B: **Can't help it**. (I can't help it.)\ **Anything on TV tonight**? (Is there anything on the TV tonight?)\ A: We might have a game of chess. B: **Yes let's.** (Let's have a game)\ **3) Parenthetical elements\ **- **word expressions/sentences** usually put into a simple, complex or compound sentence\ - they express the **subjective relationship** of a person to **the content of the sentence\ **- they complete the sentence or comment on it\ - they have a coordinating/explanatory function\ **- e.g.** actually, after all, again, as a matter of fact, at least, besides, certainly, on the contrary, of course, in the end, evidently, in fact, fortunately, on the other hand, however, indeed, no doubt, obviously, in my opinion, perhaps, possibly, probably, so to speak, I see, you see, in short, still, strictly speaking, sure, surely, to tell the truth, therefore, I think, undoubtedly, unfortunately, by the way, well, in a word, in other words **[2. PPT\ ]Verb categories\ The basic structure of English sentence\ **- every sentence must contain both a **subject + a predicate\ **- sometimes the subject is understood (imperative sentences)\ - sentences may contain **modifiers** + **complements** to complete their meaning\ - we have to distinguish between the elements of subjects, predicates, complements (direct/indirect object, subject/object complement), modifiers (adverbials and attributes) to understand the sentence structure\ **Word order of an English sentence\ **- the meaning of an English sentence depends on **the word order\ Verb categories\ **- there are **2 types of object** + **2 types of complement** there are **different categories of verb** which correspond to the two types of object and complement\ - there are verbs that **aren't followed by any complement nor by any object\ **- considering this, we differentiate the following **categories of verbs:**\ **1) intensive (linking, copulas) 2) monotransitive 3) ditransitive\ 4) complex transitive 5) intransitive** **1) intensive verbs** -- sponové slovesá\ - aka **linking verbs or copulas**\ - belong to the sentence pattern: **S-V-Cs\ ** - principal copula is the verb **to be**\ - **other**: become, seem, look, appear, remain, feel, fall, fly, get, break, come, grow, lie, keep, smell, sound, taste, stay, wear, work, sit, wash, lie, prove, run, stay, go, make, turn, rest, stand\ **- linking verbs fall into 3 classes:\ a) one in which the subject complement Cs is an [adjective]**: The wine smelled **bitter**.\ He fell **ill**. They kept **quiet**.\ His plans sound **reasonable**.\ **b) the one in which Cs is a noun**: She became **a teacher**. Jack appeared **a fool.\ ** Alice remained **a mystery.**\ **c) the one in which Cs is a past participle**: He passed **unnoticed**. Things lay **scattered**.\ He looked **tired**.\ - some intensive verbs **turn, go, run, become, fall, get** are similar to Slovak -- stavové slovesá, that express change of subject\ ran dry -- vyschnúť, go bald -- oplešatieť, turn yellow -- ožltnúť, fall ill -- ochorieť, grow older -- starnúť **2) monotransitive verbs\ ** - represent the sentence pattern: **S-V-Od\ ** - they are verbs always followed by **a direct object** (noun phrase/pronoun)\ She is carrying **a heavy bag**. She is carrying **it**.\ - **verbs**: buy, read, cut, bring, boil, make, help, understand, help, eat, call, think, speak, write, see, follow, stop, test, meet, pay, ask, answer, decide, join, support, win, save, accept, find, say, show\ - **groups of monotransitive verbs** verbs without a preposition,\ prepositional verbs,\ phrasal verbs,\ phrasal-prepositional verbs,\ verbs followed by an adverbial of place,\ reflexive verbs **Prepositional verbs\ **- direct object always followed by a **preposition** -- He decided **on the agreement.\ **- an adverb can stand between the verb and its preposition -- John is waiting impatiently **for his sister\ **- a relative pronoun can follow the preposition in questions -- **For** whom is John waiting? (formal)\ - **verbs**: agree about/on, aim at, as for, believe in, call for, concentrate on, lecture on, listen to, look at, look for, speak about **Phrasal verbs\ **- followed by an **adverbial particle** which modifies the verb\ - the direct **object other than a personal pronoun** can go before or after the particle\ They blew **up** the bridge. / They blew the bridge **up**.\ - if the direct object is a **personal pronoun** there is only one possibility -- They blew **it** up.\ - an adverb cannot be inserted between the verb and its particle\ They blew up the bridge immediately. / They blew immediately up the bridge. \*\*\ - phrasal verbs allow **passive transformation** -- The bridge **was blown up** immediately.\ - they are called phrasal bc the **verb and the particle make an inseparable part** -- a phrase\ - it is **impossible to detect the meaning** of a phrasal verb by analysing its individual elements\ - this can be compared to Slovak verbs, which by **changing their prefix**, change also meaning\ **robiť** -- rozrobiť, zaqrobiť, preorbiť, vyrobiť, urobiť, prerobiť,... **Difference between phrasal / prepositional verbs\ 1) phrasal verbs** -- function as a **single verb**, if the adverbial particle is changed, the meaning of the verb changes accordingly\ **2) prepositional verbs** - function as **2 independent words**, if the preposition is changed, the meaning of the verb remains He took his jacket off. (phrasal verb -- vyzliecť)\ He took his jacket off the clothes rack (take -- is in its primary meaning -- vziať zo) **Phrasal-prepositional verbs\ **- made up of a **verb + adverbial + particle + preposition**\ - majority of them allow **passive** **transformation** -- They have done away with the store.\ The store has been done away with.\ - they **behave like phrasal verbs** in that they represent one verb composed of 3 elements\ - they behave like prepositional verbs in that they have a preposition which is separable\ - e.g.: **catch up with** (become level with), **keep up with** (keep pace with), **be in with** (be friendly with), **go in for** (specialise in), **make up for** (compensate for) **Reflexive verbs -- zvratné\ **- used with a **reflexive pronoun\ **- both S+O are identical She looked at herself. (1 person) She looked at her. (2 diff. people)\ - English doesn't usually make use of reflexive pronouns with the verbs like -- **shave, dress, wash** **3) ditransitive verbs -- 2predmety**\ - belong to the sentence pattern -- **S-V-Oi-Od\ **- e.g. Mother gave **him a cake.** She read **her children a story**. Give **peace a chance.**\ - they allow **2 passive constructions**: She sent **him an e-mail** He was sent an e-mail.\ An e-mail was sent to him.\ - since the Od is more closely connected with the verb in most cases only the Oi may be omitted: He bought his friend a new book. He bought a new book. He bought his friend.\*\*\ **- e.g**.: cut, grant, offer, promise, take, cook, get leave, order, peel, save, spare, bring, hand, lend, read, write, find, make, ask, inform, answer, say, grow, refuse\ - only a few verbs allow either **O to be left out** **pay, ask, show, owe, tell, teach\ ** - She asked **him a question.\ ** She asked him. She asked a question\ - My brother **owes me a sum of money.**\ My brother owes me. My brother owes a sum of money.\ - some **ditransitive prepositional verbs** -- Od is preceded by a preposition: **rob of, provide with, supply with, thank for, accuse of, remind of, explain to, prevent from, think of/about, speak about**\ - usually have **1 passive form** Somebody robbed him of his money.\ - He was robbed of his money. His money was robbed of him \* **4) Complex transitive verbs\ **- sentence pattern: **S-V-Od-Co**\ - the object complement is important bc it gives this group its **special syntactic character**\ - it **qualifies the object\ **- the term **transitive** means that the verb is followed by an object\ - the verb **complex transitive** means that this object, modified by a noun/adjective/past participle has acquired **a new, often surprising, quality** She served the soup **hot** **Complex transitive verbs may be divided into 5 groups according to how object complement is realised\ 1) adjective phrase** -- He made his wife **very angry**\ **2) noun phrase** -- They named the son **John**.\ **3) past participle** -- I had my car **repaired**.\ **4) present participle** -- They heard her **crying**.\ **5) possessive pronoun** -- He made the play **his**. **5) intransitive verbs** -- neprechodné\ - **not followed by an object\ **- sentence pattern -- **S-V** She trembled.\ - intransitive verbs of movement have a sentence pattern **S-V-A** They arrived at five.\ - **other examples:** go, pause, give up, agree, happen, live, occur, snow, sleep, stay, stand, sit\ - the only possible object that can be used with intransitive verbs is the **cognate object (vnútorný predmet)** -- He died a terrible death. He dreams a peaceful dream.\ She breated a deep breath. It is raining big drops.\ - some transitive verbs can be used intransitively when the direct object is left out\ - the **verb of activity is changed into a verb of passive meaning\ ** Otvorila dvere Dvere sa otvorili.\ She opened the door The door opened\ \ **- other verbs** that can be used transitively/intransitively: pass, sit, sleep, stand, grow, run, swim, begin, move, start, close, develop, slip, tear, crack, frighten, eat, drink, breathe, follow, smoke\ **- e.g.** The chair moved. Jack moved. Jack moved the chair **Verbs belonging to more verb classes\ - make, get, call, find**\ **1) make**\ - He made **dinner** (S-V-Od)\ - **monotransitive**\ - He made **her dinner** (S-V-Oi-Od)\ - **ditransitive**\ - He made **a good friend** (S-V-Cs)\ - **intensive verb\ **- He made **her a good teacher**. (S-V-Od-Co)\ - **complex transitive verb**\ - He made **for the door** (S-V-Aplace)\ - **intransitive verb** **[3^rd^ PPT]\ Agreement/concord (zhoda/kongruencia)\ **- harmony in **person, number, gender** based on certain grammatical rules between **elements of the sentence\ - 3 types of concord:\ 1) grammatical 2) notional** (pojmová zhoda**) 3) rule of proximity** (pr.blízkosti)\ **- types of the agreement between the syntactical units in the sentence\ 1) subject-verb agreement of number and person\ 2) subject-pronoun agreement\ 3) subject-complement agreement** **Subject-verb agreement (number)\ 1) grammatical agreement\ ** - the subject in the sg. takes a sg. verb\ - the subject in the pl. takes a pl. verb\ A carnation is a flower. Carnations are flowers.\ **2) notional agreement\ ** - collective nouns are singular in form **Rule**: use a sg. verb with collective nouns that are acting as a unit, use a pl. verb with collective nouns that are acting individually:\ **SG**: The **class is** studying English usage on the job.\ The **jury has been** deliberating for hours.\ **PL**: The **class are** divided in their opinions.\ The **jury are** disagreeing on the verdict.\ Bc the sentence may sound awkward when a pl. verb is matched with a collective noun, some writers prefer to change the sentence to avoid the situation.\ The **students in the class are** divided in their opinions.\ The **members of the jury are** disagreeing on the verdict.\ - **examples of typical collective nouns**: association, audience, board, class, committee, company, council, couple, crowd, department, family, firm, group, jury, majority, minority, management, number, pair, press, public, staff, team, tribe\ - some are always used with a pl. verb: **clergy, police, people, cattle, youth\ ** Cattle **are** grazing on the meadow.\ The youth **are** very fond of music nowadays. \- a **subject clause** takes a sg. verb: What happened there **is** impossible to know.\ That you refuse to witness **makes** the situation even worse.\ - but **a relative clause** introduced by **a relative pronoun** may be also followed by a **plural verb**\ **Those** who refuse to witness **make** the situation even worse.\ - in **informal English** the pronouns **here, there it** -- are regarded as a kind of false subject bc they immediately precede the verb: Here **is** the lost articles. (informal)\ - in **formal English,** the plural verb is preferred bc the true subject is the pl. noun phrase which follows the verb: **Here** **are** the lost articles. (more correct)\ - the subject coordinated by the conjunction ***and*** takes a sg. or a plural verb depending if:\ - this subject **expresses one person** (prístavok) George Bush, the President, **has** signed an agreement. (1 person)\ - or **2 persons** (viacnásobný podmet) Senator McLain and the President **have** signed an agreement. (2 persons)\ - use a pl. verb to agree with 2 separate subjects joined by ***and***:\ **Reading** and **writing** are important communicative skills.\ - some nouns joined by ***and*** are not separate subjects\ - if 2 subjects cannot be separated, use a **sg. verb\ **- it means: if only the first of the 2 subjects contains an article, assume you have a sg. subject\ **SG**: **The editor and reporter** on the staff **needs** a computer. (1 person)\ **PL**: **The editor and the reporter** on the staff **need** a computer. (2 people)\ - 2 subjects connected by **both...and** take a plural verb Both my parents and my sister **are** here \- use a sg. verb with 2 sg. subjects joined by **or** or **nor**\ - use a pl. verb when **both subjects** are **plural**\ - when one of the subjects is pl. and one is sg. **make the verb agree with the subjects closer to the verb\ **e.g. \* Either the software or hardware **are** not working e.g.\ \* The department heads or the vice presidents **is** responsible for the agreement.\ e.g. \* Neither the dean nor the professors **was** available for the conference.\ e.g. \* Either the software or the hardware **is** not working\ e.g. \* The department heads or the vice presidents **are** responsible for the agreement.\ e.g. \* Neither the dean nor the professors **were** available for the conference. \- sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by such words as **along with, as well as, besides, not,** etc.\ - these words and phrases **are not part of the subject\ **- **ignore the**m and use a singular verb when the subject is singular.\ e.g.The politician, along with the newsmen, **is expected** shortly\ Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.\ The **reply**, along with the enclosures, **was** in yesterday\'s mail. \- the following are plural subjects, but they take a singular verb:\ e.g. Four weeks **is** a very long time.\ A hundred miles **is** a long distance.\ Twenty thousand euros **is** much money.\ - use **singular verbs** with the most indefinite pronouns **(any, another, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, neither, nobody, someone, somebody)\ **- use **plural verbs** with indefinite pronouns that express plural ideas (**few, many, most, several, some**).\ e.g. **Everybody** **is** trying to increase productivity in the company.\ **Each** of the boys **has** a new suit for the event.\ **Neither** of the answers to our questions **was** a correct one.\ **Many** are called, but **few** **are** chosen. \- **rule**: Make the verb agree with the prepositional phrase following part or portion words:\ **all, some, most, half, two-thirds, part**\ **SINGULAR**: **Most** of **the flour is** gone.\ **Three-quarters** of the **camping** **equipment has** been rented.\ **Some** of the **knowledge** **is** outdated.\ **All** the **material is** available. **PLURAL**: Most of the **cookies are** gone.\ **Three-quarters** of the new **videos** **have** been rented.\ **Some** of the **ideas are** outdated.\ **All** the **patterns are** available \- 2 singular subjects connected by or, **either**... **or**, **neither... nor** require a singular verb.\ e.g. My aunt or my uncle **is** arriving by train today.\ Neither Juan nor Carmen **is** available.\ Either Kiana or Casey **is** helping today with stage decorations.\ - the verb in an **or, either/or, neither/nor, not only\... but also** sentence agrees with the noun or pronoun closest to it.\ Neither the plates nor the serving bowl **goes** on that shelf.\ Neither the serving bowl nor the plates **go** on that shelf.\ Not only my mother but also my sister **is** here.\ Not only my sister but also my parents **are** here.\ - whenever in doubt, the best way would be to avoid using ***is, has*** or ***are*** and insert a modal verb if possible: None of the boys **will** be... **Subject-verb agreement (person)\ **- when there are two or more coordinated subjects, **the last one attracts the person of the verb phrase** according to the rule of proximity.\ e.g. Either Charles or I **am** coming to the party.\ - a better way is to use a modal verb, too:\ e.g. Either Charles or I **will** come to the party **Subject-pronoun agreement (number, gender)\ **- English has no general pronoun which would represent both sexes as it is in Slovak with the pronoun svoj.\ e.g. Every passenger must sign **his** name\ **their** name. (spoken English)\ **his** **or her** name. (very formal)\ e.g. Every woman must sign **her** name.\ **their** name.\ - with collective nouns, the choice of pronouns depends on whether the collective noun denotes an "**inanimate**" **group** or **individuals within a group.\ **- the relative pronoun and the verb change accordingly:\ The family clan **which has its** own body guards....\ The family clan **who have their \.....** **Subject-complement agreement (number)\ **- there is only one exception, that of the disagreement with the verb **turn**:\ e.g. All of them turned **prisoner**.\ All of them became **prisoners**.\ - if **a clause is the subject**, the verb is in **the singular** irrespective of the number of the subject complement:\ e.g. These paintings **are** the best present I've got.\ The best present I've got **is** these paintings. **[4^th^ PPT]** **[The Compound Sentence]**\ - To understand the different types of sentences, we must know the difference between **phrases, dependent clauses, and independent clauses**\ - Phrases are groups of words that do not contain a subject and a verb.\ - They can function as **adjectives, adverbs, nouns, or verbs** within the sentence.\ - Although dependent and independent clauses both contain **subjects** and **verbs**, the dependent clause cannot function alone as a sentence.\ - It must **depend** on another part of the sentence\ - Phrase - **in the room\ **- Dependent clause **- if he was in the room\ **- Independent clause - **he was in the room**\ - The independent clause could be a sentence.\ - The phrase and the dependent clause need more information for the thought to be complete \- Sentences can be classified by **structure - the number and kinds** of clauses included in the sentence:\ **1) Simple sentences** - contain only one independent clause and no dependent clauses\ **2) Compound sentences** -- contain at least two independent clauses and no dependent clauses\ **3) Complex sentences** -- contain one independent clause and at least one dependent clause\ **4) Compound-complex sentences** -- a combination that includes one dependent clause and at least two independent clauses. **- Simple Sentences** -- containing one independent proposition e.g. Nick paid the check.\ **- Compound Sentences** -- containing two or more independent propositions e.g. Nick paid the check, and Terry left the tip.\ **- Complex Sentences** -- containing one independent proposition and one or more subordinate clauses e.g. Although Nick paid the check, Terry left the tip.\ **- Compound-complex sentences** e.g. Although the rest of us were not aware, Nick paid the check, and Terry left the tip. **The Compound Sentence\ **- The compound sentence consists usually of two or more simple sentences connected by **co-ordinative** **conjunctions**: **and, but, or, for**, or by **an adverb**, performing the function of a conjunction **Classification of the Compound Sentence**\ - Co-ordinative conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs may be divided into the following groups:\ **1. Copulative\ 2. Disjunctive\ 3. Adversative\ 4. Causal\ 5. Resultative\ 6. Explanatory** **1) Copulative compound sentences\ - connecting two members and their meanings and often coming [in pairs:]\ ** and, both - and, equally - and, alike - and, at once -and, not - or, not - not, neither - nor, either - or, not only - but, sometimes - sometimes, now - now, partly - partly, on the one hand - on the other hand,\ - as well as, also, and also, as, again, later, further, besides, likewise, even, indeed, not to mention, not to say, anything of, still more, still less, first, in the first, place, firstly, secondly, finally, then, at least **2) Disjunctive compound sentences\ **- **Connecting two members, but disconnecting their meaning**: or, whether -- or, either -- or, or -- or, else, otherwise, or else.\ e.g. Is he rich or poor?\ e.g. Either he or she must leave the room.\ e.g. Seize the chance, otherwise you will regret it. **3) Adversative compound sentences\ **- connecting **two members**, but **[contrasting their meaning]**: but, but then, only, still, yet, however, on the other hand, again, in the contrary, rather, nevertheless, all the same, though, after all, at the same time, in the meantime, meanwhile. **4) Causal compound sentences\ **- represented only by **the single conjunction *[for]*.**\ e.g. The pupil was punished, **for** he made many mistakes in his homework. **5) Resultative compound sentences\ **- **introducing a consequence, conclusion or result**: therefore, on that account, consequently, accordingly, for that reason, so, then, hence.\ e.g. The thing had to be done; accordingly we did it.\ e.g. Nobody was there, so I went away. **6) Explanatory compound sentences\ **- Introducing an explanation: **namely**.\ e.g. He has always a lot of money; **namely** his parents are rich. **Showing relationships between ideas\ **- A parallel structure may contain **more than two parts\ **- In a series, commas are used to separate each unit.\ - The final comma that precedes the conjunction is optional but it is customarily used.\ - No commas are used if there are only two parts to a parallel structure.\ e.g. Steve, Joe, and Alice are coming to dinner.\ e.g. Susan raised her hand, snapped her fingers, and asked a question. **Combining independent clauses with conjunctions\ **- A period not a comma is used to separate two independent clauses.\ - **NO** e.g. It was raining hard, there was a strong wind. (run-on, comma sentence)\ - **YES** e.g. It was raining hard. There was a strong wind.\ - A conjunction may be used to connect two independent clauses.\ e.g. It was raining hard, **and** there was a strong wind.\ - Usually a comma immediately precedes the conjunction\ -Sometimes in short sentences the comma is omitted\ - In **informal writing a conjunction may begin a sentence**.\ e.g. It was raining hard. **And** there was a strong wind.\ - Other conjunctions are used to connect two independent clauses:\ e.g. **so** (meaning therefore, as a result)\ e.g. **for** (meaning because)\ e.g. **yet** (meaning but, nevertheless)\ - A comma always precedes **so**, **for** and **yet** when they are used as conjunction\ e.g. He was tired, **so** he went to bed.\ e.g. The child hid behind his mother\'s skirt, **for** he was afraid of the dog.\ e.g. He did not study, **yet** he passed the exam. **Showing relationships between ideas**\ - The members of the compound sentence are usually joined by the conjunctions, but sometimes they are joined **asyndetically**, by **a semicolon,** or **a colon.\ **- The copulative conjunction **„and"** may always be inserted.\ e.g. The sun was shining; everything was bright and jolly. **[5^th^ PPT]\ Sentence problems**\ **- sentence fragments, run-on sentences and comma splices**\ - A sentence is made up of at least **one independent clause.\ **- A sentence containing more than one independent clause must be punctuated properly to avoid two kinds of errors: **the run-on sentence** and **the comma splice** **Run-on sentence\ **- A run-on sentence contains at least two independent clauses **[without]** punctuation or conjunction to join the clauses.\ - The sentences are „run together."\ - Correct punctuation and conjunctions should be used to join clauses. **Example of a run-on sentence**: Thain and Aurora were on their way to a yard an old man waved feebly to them. **(not correctly punctuated)** **Ways to correct a run-on sentence\ 1.**)Separate the two independent clauses with a period.\ - Capitalize the first word of the second clause.\ e.g. Thain and Aurora were on their way to a yard sale**.** **A**n old man waved feebly to them.\ **2)** Separate the two independent clauses with a semicolon. Do not capitalize the first word of the second clause.\ e.g. Thain and Aurora were on their way to a yard sale**;** an old man waved feebly to them.\ **3)** Join the two independent clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction.\ e.g. Thain and Aurora were on their way to a yard sale**, and** an old man waved feebly to them.\ **4)** Make one of the independent clauses dependent by adding a subordinating conjunction, and separate the two clauses with a comma if the independent clause comes first.\ e.g. **When** Thain and Aurora were on their way to a yard sale**,** an old man waved feebly to them. **Comma splices**\ - A comma splice contains two independent clauses that are joined with a comma only.\ - However, **a comma cannot perform the joining function by itself** and does not provide adequate separation.\ **- There are several ways to correct these sentences.** **Example of a comma splice**: \* Marsha read the Assertive Individual\'s Handbook**,** she learned a lot about expressing herself in the process. **Ways to correct a comma splice**\ - use a **period** 1.. Marsha read the Assertive Individual\'s Handbook**. S**he learned a lot about expressing herself in the process.\ - use a **semicolon** 2. Marsha read the Assertive Individual\'s Handbook**; s**he learned a lot about expressing herself in the process.\ - use a **comma and a coordinating conjunction** 3. Marsha read the Assertive Individual\'s Handbook**, and** she learned a lot about expressing herself in the process.\ - **make one of the clauses dependent by adding a subordinating conjunction** 4. **When** Marsha read the Assertive Individual\'s Handbook**,** she learned a lot about expressing herself in the process.\ - convert one of the clauses into an adverbial **-- ing phrase** if the subjects of the two clauses are the same 5. Marsha read the Assertive Individual\'s Handbook**, learning a lot about expressing herself in the process.** **[6^th^ PPT]** **The complex sentence. Basic terminology and classification**\ - The **complex sentence** is a sentence which has **one**:\ **main principal, superordinate or independent clause** (hlavná/nadradená veta)\ one or more **subordinate or dependent clauses** (vedľajšia/podriadená veta)\ - The **subordinate clause** itself may have other subordinate clause:\ e.g. **He said** [that he did not know] who caused the accident.\ - The sentences are joined by a **conjunction of subordination** (podraďovacia spojka).\ - As dependent clauses stand for **a particular sentence element** (subject, object, attribute, adverbial), they are divided into the following classes:\ **classification of complex sentences:\ 1. Nominal -** subject clause\ - direct object clause\ - indirect object clause\ - subject complement clause\ - object complement clause\ **2. Attributive** - relative\ **3. Adverbial** - clause of place\ - clause of time\ - clause of reason and cause\ - clause of purpose\ - clause of result\ - clause of condition\ - clause of concession\ - clause of comparison **1) Nominal clauses\ The Subject clause** (vedľajšia veta podmetová)\ - The subject clause functions as **subject** in the sentence and may be introduced by many conjunctions and/or pronouns.\ **It** seems very impolite. (subject)\ **What you want to do** seems very impolite. (subject clause)\ e.g. **That she agreed with it** was rather a surprise to me.\ e.g. **How they finished the work** is a mystery.\ e.g. **Whether he comes or not** does not depend on him.\ e.g. **Whoever will lose the game** will pay five euros. **The subject clause with anticipatory it-subject** (anticipačný podmet)\ **It** seems rather impolite **what you want to do.\ ** e.g. **It** was rather a surprise to me **that she agreed with it.\ ** e.g. **It** is a mystery **how they finished the work**.\ e.g. **It** is important **that you should do it.** **Non-finite (infinitive or participle) subject clause with or without a subject:\ ** e.g. **To drive in the fog** must be dangerous.\ e.g. It must be dangerous **to drive in the fog**.\ e.g. It must be dangerous **driving in the fog.** **The subject complement clause\ **- The subject complement clause (vedľajšia veta prísudková) stands for **the subject.\ **- It may be introduced by subordinating conjunctions or pronouns and may be either finite or non-finite.\ - Linking and intensive verbs are the most frequent in this clause:\ The sky looked **red.** (subject complement)\ The sky looked as **if it were covered with a red blanket**. (subject complement clause) **The subject complement clause (non-finite infinitive)\ ** e.g. Her dream was **to become an actress.\ ** e.g. The best thing would be **to take a bus.\ ** e.g. All he sometimes does is (**to) wash the dishes.\ ** e.g. Her dream was **being an actress.\ ** e.g. The best thing would be **taking a bus** **The object clause (predmetová veta)**\ - The object clause functions as **object**.\ - As there are two objects (direct/indirect) in a simple sentence, so there are **two object clauses**:\ the direct object clause,\ the indirect object clause. **The direct object clause\ **- May by either **finite** or **non-finite** (participle with or without subject and infinitive with or without subject):\ He said **it**. (object)\ He said (that) **it was going to rain**. (object clause)\ e.g. What do you think **has happened?\ ** e.g. I do not know **if/whether they sell meat (or not)**.\ - After verbs like **demand, command, insist, order, propose, suggest** the **subjunctive** (konjunktív) or **should+infinitive** construction is used:\ e.g. They proposed **that he be sentenced to prison**. (American formal)\ e.g. They proposed that **he should be sentenced to prison**. (British) **The direct object clause (non-finite infinitive)\ ** e.g. He wants **to come to see us.** (without subject)\ e.g. I did not know **where to go.\ ** e.g. I did not know **what to do.\ ** e.g. I did not know **how to do it.\ ** e.g. I did not know **the way to do it.\ ** e.g. I did not know **why to do it.\ ** e.g. She likes **to go to dances.\ ** e.g. You mustn\'t let **little children be left alone** **The direct object clause (non-finite participle)\ ** e.g. I do not mind **(his/him) coming earlier.\ ** e.g. She likes **going to dances.\ ** e.g. We heard **him singing.**\ e.g. Tom got **his room cleaned.\ ** e.g. I want it **painted red.\ ** e.g. I appreciate **Tom helping me in the garden.\ ** e.g. I do not understand **your/you not wanting to buy it.** **The indirect object clause\ **- is usually introduced with **whoever** and is nearly always **animate** and is in the **dative** **case**:\ I gave **them** a list of candidates. (indirect object)\ I gave **whoever came to the meeting** a list of candidates. **The direct object clause followed by the indirect object clause**\ e.g. She explained **it to them.\ ** e.g. She explained **that it can be done** (direct object) **to whoever asked her** (indirect object). **The object complement clause (veta prívlastková)\ **- Stands for the **object complement.**\ - It occurs rarely.\ I drink tea **hot**. (object complement)\ I drink tea **as it is.** (object complement clause) **The object complement clause (non-finite infinitive)\ ** e.g. They made him **to be a good worker.\ ** e.g. They crowned Henry **to be King of England**.\ e.g. She got her hair **cut short.\ ** e.g. He wants **to have his son to be a lawyer.** **[7^th^ PPT]** **The relative clause (prívlastková veta)\ **- are introduced with the relative pronouns **who, whom, whose, what, whatever, whoever, whomever, which, whichever, where, wherever, when, whenever, why, that** or [without a pronoun] **The attributive/relative clause (prívlastková veta)\ **- The attributive clause qualifies the noun.\ e.g. This is the **yesterday-repaired car**. (adjective)\ e.g. This is the car **which I repaired yesterday**. (attributive clause)\ **Differences in the use of relative pronouns:** **who -- which\ **- Gender distinction (rozdiel v rode):\ - **who** and its compounds are used with personal nouns,\ - **which** is used with non-personal nouns.\ e.g. Show me the boy **who** (that) broke the glass.\ e.g. Show me the glass **which** (that) the boy broke.\ - **Collective nouns** take one or the other pronoun according to whether they present a group or they stress individuals within a group:\ e.g. The club which **is** \.... (British and American)\ e.g. The club who **are** \... (British)\ - The pronoun **which**, however may refer to a person if it functions as the **object complement**.\ - A comma must always precede this pronoun.\ e.g. They thought him a dishonest person, which he never was.\ - If the pronoun **which** refers to the **whole sentence**, it is **preceded by a comma**.\ - If the pronoun **which** refers **only to a preceding noun phrase**, it is used **without a comma.\ ** e.g. He sent me the vase which I do not like. (I do not like the vase)\ e.g. He sent me the vase, which I do not like. (I do not like his sending me the vase) **Differences in the use of relative pronouns: whose -- of which**\ - The pronoun **whose** can be used both for personal and non-personal nouns.\ - The pronoun **of which** is used only for non-personal nouns.\ e.g. The book **whose** chapters are on our history is over there.\ The book chapters **of which** are on our history is over there.\ e.g. The pupil **whose** father lectured on history.\ The pupil father of which lectured on history **Differences in the use of relative pronouns: who - whom - that -- 0\ **- **Who** is used as subject.\ - **Whom** is used as object and always after a preposition.\ - Clauses in which a relative pronoun is omitted are called **contact clauses.** **See the movable preposition:\ **- e.g. The carpenter **whom** we are waiting **for**.\ e.g. The carpenter **for whom** we are waiting.\ e.g. The carpenter we are waiting for.\ e.g. The carpenter **for who** we are waiting.\ e.g. The carpenter **for that** we are waiting. e.g. The shop **which** we are going **to**.\ e.g. The shop **to which** we are going.\ e.g. The shop we are going to.\ e.g. The shop **to that** we are going. **Who as a subject\ **- The relative pronoun **as a subject** cannot be normally left out:\ e.g. I met a guy **who** knows about it.\ e.g. \*I met a guy knows about it. **Differences in the use of relative pronouns: when -- where -- why -- how\ **- Avoid using the following superfluous words, words with nearly the same meaning:\ - **the time = when,\ - the place = where,\ - the reason = why,\ - the way = how\ - e.g**. \*I do not remember **the time when** he was born.\ - I do not remember **when** he was born.\ - I do not remember **the time** he was born.\ **e.g**. It was **the reason why** he spent all his money.\ - It was the reason he spent all his money.\ - It was why he spent all his money\ **e.g.** We know **the place where** he goes fishing.\ - We know the place he goes fishing.\ - We know where he goes fishing.\ **e.g.** Tell me **the way how** to solve it.\ - Tell me the way to solve it.\ - Tell me how to solve it.\ **- The relative clause** is divided into two groups:\ **1. Tight** (restrictive, defining)\ **2. Loose** (non-restrictive, non-defining) **The tight relative clause** (veta tesnoprívlastková)\ - Limits or **restricts** the meaning of the **preceding noun phrase** and is an **inseparable part** of it.\ - It **cannot be omitted**, otherwise the whole sentence would have a different meaning.\ - There is **no comma** to separate the tight relative clause:\ e.g. Towns **which belong to the northern region were destroyed**. (not all towns were destroyed, but only those which belong to the northern region)\ e.g. I wrote a letter to the girl **who I met in Paris.\ ** e.g. The boys **who are playing tennis** are my sons. **The loose relative clause** (veta voľnoprívlastková)\ - **Does not restrict**, when omitted, the meaning of the whole sentence, nor does it make an inevitable part of the sentence.\ - This clause supplies **additional information.**\ - It is more frequent in a writing style.\ - At the beginning and at the end of the clause **commas** are put to mark it.\ e.g. The Gallery**, which is in the centre of town,** is very old.\ e.g. His friends**, many of whom do not like him,** will be there.\ e.g. Sue\'s knowledge**, much of which she has got at school,** may come in handy.\ e.g. The BBC **- which is a world-known radio station -** broadcasts in several languages. **Compare a loose and a tight relative clause:\ ** e.g. Mr Johnson, who is a plumber, called yesterday.\ (There is only Mr Johnson and he is a plumber.)\ e.g. Mr Johnson who is a plumber called yesterday.\ (We speak about Mr Johnson who is a plumber, not about Mr Johnson who is e.g. a watch-maker.) **[8^th^ PPT]** **Adverbial clauses I\ **- adverbial clauses stand for various **adverbials**\ - as the adverbial can occur at the beginning or at the end of the sentence, so adverbialclause can occur in the initial or final position Clauses of Place (vedľajšie vety miestne)\ - relative pronouns as subordinators (podraď. Spojky): **where, wherever\ ** e.g. You must remain **there**. (adverbial of place)\ You must remain **where you are**. (adverbial clause of place) **Finite Clause of Place\ ** **Wherever** he **moves**, she moves.\ I want to go **wherever you go.\ ** Let\'s have a drink **where we met the other day.**\ **Where you are standing,** there is no bus-stop.\ **Non-finite Clause of Place\ ** e.g. **Wherever finished**, they could find him.\ Let's go for a walk **where possible.** **Mind the following distinctions:\ **- It is where he had an accident. (clause of place)\ - It is the place where he had an accident. (relative clause)\ - Tell me where he had an accident. (object clause) **Clause of Time** (vedľajšie vety časové)\ - The clause of time may be **simultaneous** with (súčasná), **anterior** (predčasná) or **posterior** (následná) to the event of the main clause.\ - To express a **future time**, **present tense** is used.\ - The **temporal clause** usually comes **before the main clause.** **Subordinators**:\ after, before, since, till, until, as, once, when, now (that), while, whilst, as soon as, as long as, immediately (that), the moment (that).\ It was raining **the whole afternoon**. (adverb of time)\ It was raining **while I was writing my homework**. (adverbial clause of time) **Finite:\ **e.g. **After he washes**, he shaves.\ e.g. I\'ve known him **since we\'ve been living next door**.\ e.g. I\'ll let you know **as soon as I can.\ **e.g. Stand up **the moment I tell you.\ **e.g. **Once you get to learn it**, you\'ll never make a mistake.\ e.g. **When I came to see him**, he was very happy. **Non-finite (present or past participle):\ **e.g. **After finishing his studies**, he began to work here.\ e.g. **Since having a new job**, I cannot get into touch with him.\ e.g. **While working in the garden,** he was listening to music.\ e.g. **Walking along the river**, he lost his purpose.\ e.g. **Once finished**, he put on his coat and left. **Non-finite (verbless):\ **e.g. **Once a president**, I would veto some acts.\ e.g. **As soon as at home,** he switched on the radio.\ e.g. **Whenever possible,** send us some money.\ e.g. **While a football player**, he used to spend money on drinks.\ - The conjunction **until** means **not** before if the principal clause is negative:\ e.g. I **was watching** TV till it started to rain. (=I was not watching TV after it started to rain.)\ e.g. I **was not watching** TV until it started to rain. (=I switched on the television just after it started to rain) **Mind the following distinctions:\ ** e.g. It happened when we met. (when? Temporal clause)\ e.g. It happened the day when we met. (what day? Relative clause)\ e.g. I do not know when we met. (what? Object clause) **Clause of Cause and Reason** (vedľajšia veta príčiny alebo dôvodu)\ - **Reason** explains or justifies an action or phenomenon\ - **Cause** produces an effect, result or consequence, gives rise to an effect or phenomenon\ - [Subordinators]: **as, because, since**\ e.g. She left by train **because of high prices for air tickets**. (adverbial of reason)\ e.g. She left by train **because air tickets cost a lot of money**. (clause of reason) **Finite:**\ e.g. He went up the ladder **because he wanted to see behind it.\ **e.g. **As/since he wanted to see behind it**, he went up the ladder.\ e.g. The reason he went up the ladder was **that he wanted to see behind it.** **Non-finite (participle, infinitive and verbless):\ **e.g. **Wanting to see behind the fence,** he went/goes up the ladder.\ e.g. **The exam being too difficult,** she did not pass it.\ e.g. I am so happy **to have told you all about it.**\ e.g. Jack, **strong enough to carry heavy burdens**, helped me with the bag uphill. **Clauses of Purpose** (vedľajšia veta účelová)\ - The clause of purpose expresses an **intended or desired effect\ **- There are **two types of subordinators**:\ those introducing **finite** purposive clauses,\ those introducing **non-finite** purposive clauses.\ **- Subordinators (finite)**: so that, in order that, that, lest, in case, (the last two are negative in meaning)\ **- Subordinators (non-finite):** to +infinitive, so as to + infinitive, in order to +infinitive **Clauses of Purpose** (vedľajšia veta účelová)\ e.g. Jack asked me **for help**. (adverbial of purpose)\ e.g. He came earlier **to help me**. (adverbial clause of purpose) **Finite (subjects are not identical):\ **e.g. Put it there **so that I should see it.**\ e.g. John brought a screwdriver **in order that he could repair it.\ **e.g. John will buy a screwdriver **so that I can repair it.\ **e.g. I take my pencil **in case you forget yours at school.\ **e.g. Come nearer **lest they should listen to our talk**. (=so that they should not listen to our talk) **Non-finite (subjects are identical):\ **e.g. He opened the door **to let air into the bedroom.\ **e.g. **In order (for me) to pass the test**, I studied two weeks.\ e.g. They have got road-map **so as to get there more quickly.\ **e.g. They bought a road-map **so as not to lose their way.** **[9^th^ PPT\ ]Adverbial clauses II\ Clause of Concession or Contrast** (vedľajšia veta prípustková)\ - express **an idea** which is **at variance with,** or contrary to, the idea in the main clause\ - although **the circumstances** in the subordinate clause, are unsuitable for the existence of phenomenon, **yet this** **phenomenon occurs.\ **- it means that one does not expect the unsuitable consequences to happen.\ - this unexpected and surprising consequence is also called **anti-cause.**\ e.g. He went for a trip **in spite of bad weather**. (adverbial of contrast)\ e.g. He went for a trip **although weather was bad**. (clause of contrast) **Subordinators:** though, although, even if, even though, while, whereas, in spite of the fact that, despite the fact that, regardless of the fact that, however **Finite:\ **e.g. **Although he was ill,** (yet) he went out for walk.\ e.g**. Even if/though she did not pass the test,** she attends lectures.\ e.g. He is hardworking, **whereas she is lazy.\ **e.g. Tom got home **in spite of the fact that he missed the bus.\ **e.g. This house is small. We like it **though.\ **e.g. It is a good example. **However**, it does not suit this rule. Compare the adversative compound sentence (priraďovacie súvetie odporovacie)\ He was ill, but went out for a walk **Non-finite** **concessive clauses** are introduced by **conjunctions** and **sentence adverbials** like:\ in spite of, despite, notwithstanding, all the same, nevertheless, still **Non-finite:**\ e.g. **Though very lazy**, he finished it on time.\ e.g. **Even if in bad order,** the can run eighty miles per hour.\ e.g. **For all the money,** he left her. (=although she had a lot of money, he left her.)\ e.g. **Still attending the elementary school**, he speaks several languages. (=although he attends \...)\ e.g. **Regardless of all their problems**, they helped us a lot.\ e.g. **In spite of the rain**, they went for a trip.\ e.g. **Despite having a lot of work**, Jack works at a restaurant.\ e.g. **Notwithstanding the distance**, we got there on time. \- In colloquial English, the conjunction **though** is sometimes put at the end of the sentence\ - although this construction does not show signs of a dependent clause, it is concessive in meaning. e.g. **Although** the box was very big, I could carry it easily.\ e.g. The box was very big. I could carry it easily, **though**. **Conditional-concessive clauses** (vedľajšie vety podmienkovo-prípustkové)\ - They set up a condition which should, but it does not, exclude the result expressed in the main clause\ - They express two contrasting situations and the result in the main clause is always surprising\ - **subordinators**:\ whatever, whoever, which ever, whenever, wherever, no matter what/who\..., it does not matter what/who\..., whether\... or. **Finite**:\ e.g. **Whatever** he does, they tolerate him.\ e.g. **It does not matter** what he does, they tolerate him.\ e.g. **No matter** what he does, they tolerate him.\ e.g. **Whether** he works or not, they tolerate him. **Non-finite:\ **e.g. **Whatever** his endurance, they tolerate him.\ (=although he does not endure much, they tolerate him) **Inversion with the modal verb:**\ e.g. Work as he may, they tolerate him. (=whether he works or not) **Clauses of comparison** (vedľajšie vety spôsobové prirovnávacie)\ - In clauses of comparison the quality in the main clause is compared to the quality in the subordinate clause\ - Qualities may be either **equivalent** (similar) or **non-equivalent** (dissimilar)\ - Sometimes such a clause, if analyzed at he background of a Slovak sentence, expresses degree:\ e.g. He is running **like a world champion**. (adverbial of comparison)\ e.g. He is running **as if he were a world champion.**\ - Clause of comparison might be divided into two groups:\ **1) hypothetical (unreal) 2) factual (real)** **Hypothetical (unreal) clause of comparison\ **- In the **hypothetical (unreal)** clauses the grammatical tense does not coincide with the real time\ - They are introduced by subordinators **as, as if, as though, like** **Finite:\ **e.g. He behaves **as if he were/was a head teacher**. (but he is a teacher - were is more formal, was is informal)\ e.g. She speaks English **as though she lived in the U.S** **Non-finite\ **e.g. **As though punished**, the child was sitting in the corner.\ e.g. She approached **as if to give us** what she was holding.\ e.g. They looked **like thieves quarreling** about something. **Factual (real) clause of comparison\ **- The grammatical tense agrees with the actual time\ - Two qualities or things are compared on the basis:\ **1) of equality,** if they are similar to each other,\ **2) of inequality**, if they are not alike\ - In the latter, two dissimilar qualities are compared by **the comparative** (druhý stupeň) or **superlative** (tretí stupeň)\ - They are **introduced by the subordinators:\ **(just) as, as\...as, not so\... as, like, the\...the, more/less than, so /such\... that, as\...so. **Finite\ **e.g. This article is as interesting as I hoped it would be.\ e.g. As you go further, so your legs grow more tired.\ e.g. The further you go, the more your legs grow tired.\ e.g. They went so far that they lost the way out.\ e.g. He likes beer more than she likes beer.\ e.g. He likes beer more than she likes it.\ e.g. He likes beer more than she does.\ e.g. He is more hardworking than she is. **Non-finite\ **e.g. He likes beer more than she.\ e.g. He likes beer more than her. (ambiguous since the pronoun her might be the subject or object) e.g. The higher up, the greater the fall.\ e.g. Your car is as fast as mine.\ e.g. Jane came later than usual.\ e.g. He looks like his father.\ e.g. They went so far as to lose the way out.\ e.g. Dad is too old to carry heavy bags.\ e.g. The weather is too cold for everyone to go out.\ e.g. They have enough money to pay all expenses. **[10^th^ ppt\ ]The complex sentences (Clauses of Condition)\ Clause of condition\ **- expresses an idea or event upon which the fulfillment of another idea or event (in the main clause) depends\ - the realization of an **event in the main clause** is a **consequence of the fulfillment of the condition in the subordinate clause** **4 types of conditional clauses with time-tense reference\ 0 conditional\ 1^st^ conditional\ 2^nd^ conditional\ 3^rd^ conditional** **Zero conditional\ -** We talk about general facts or things that are **always true**\ - Time reference - **present**\ - Tense in the **if-clause** - present tense\ - Tense in the **main clause** - present tense **First conditional\ **- condition -- **possible and probable\ **- time reference -- **present or future\ **- tense in the **if-clause** -- **present tense\ **- tense in the **main clause** -- **future tense** (shall/will) **Second conditional\ **- Condition - **possible but improbable\ **- Time reference - **present or future\ **- Tense in the **if-clause** - **past tense\ **- Tense in the **main clause** - present conditional (should/would) **Third conditional\ **- condition -- **possible and irrealizable**\ - time reference -- **past**\ - tense in the **if-clause -- past perfect**\ - tense in the **main clause -- past conditional** **Examples\ **- 0. If inflation rises, the value of people\'s savings goes down.\ **- 1.** If it is nice (today/tomorrow), he will go out.\ **- 2.** If it was/were nice (today/tomorrow), he would go out.\ - **3.** If it had been nice (yesterday), he would have gone out. **Subordinators** \- if, unless\ - unless and until (very formal)\ - provided (that)\ - on condition that\ - as long as, so long as\ - given that\ - in case\ - suppose, supposing\ - if only\ - in the event that\ - if and when\ - whether or not **Examples** **\ **e.g. **If** you try hard, you\'ll earn a lot of money. (ak)\ e.g. You will not earn much money, **unless** you try hard. (leda, ibaže by, ak nie)\ e.g. The Social Office will help you **provided** **(that)/providing (that)** you paid taxes. (za predpokladu, že)\ e.g. I\'ll open the shop **on condition that** tourists come here on weekends. (pod podmienkou, že)\ e.g. You can stay with us **so long as/as long as** you pay the fee. (pokiaľ, ak)\ e.g. **In case** the chief is looking for me, tell him where I am. (v prípade, že)\ e.g. **Supposing** we miss the bus, could we pass the night here? (čo ak, dajme tomu, že)\ e.g. **If** only he had let me know, I wouldn\'t have failed in it. (keby len)\ e.g. **Whether** she goes for a walk or not, I\'ll go with her. (či\...či, či\...alebo)\ e.g. **In the event that** the door is locked, we\'ll go phone the boss. (v prípade, že)\ e.g. **Unless and until** the Magistrate agrees, no one is allowed to leave room. (iba ak) If vs. Unless\ - **Unless** (iba ak, jedine ak) is negative in meaning and means **if not** or **except if\ **- It is used in open conditional clauses (1. conditional) because it gives emphasis to negative condition (in any other condition except that in the dependent clause)\ - e.g. **If** the sun **isn\'t** shining, he will go home.\ - e.g. **Unless** the sun **is** shining, he will go home.\ - e.g. I shall not help you **if** you **do not wash** the dishes.\ - e.g. I shall not help you **unless** you **wash** the dishes.\ - Since we are positive about the condition, unless is followed by a positive element (some, already)\ - e.g. He won\'t come **unless** you know **someone** here.\ - e.g. Jack doesn\'t want to do it, **unless** you give him **something**.\ But\ - e.g. Jack doesn\'t want to do it **if** you **don\'t give** him anything. If vs. When\ - The subordinator **if** is a **conditional conjunction**, whereas **when** is **temporal**\ - The examples above showed that the conjunction **if** introduces neutral elements (any, yet) not factual.\ - e.g. **If** you come to see me, I\'ll show you my room.\ (I do not know if you come or not)\ - e.g. **When** you come to see me, I\'ll show you my room.\ (I expect you to come to see me, and then I will show you my room) **If vs. In case\ - If** is more hypothetical, **in case** is more factual:\ e.g. I can give him some money **if** he wants to buy a TV set.\ (I do not know whether or not he wants to buy it. I give him the money after he decides to buy one.)\ e.g. I can give him some money **in case** he wants to buy a TV set.\ (I want to give him some money now and if he wants to buy a TV set, he will already have some money.) **First Possible and Probable condition\ **- This type of conditional clauses is also called **real** or **open**, because it expresses a **real situation** (situation which may still happen)\ - This clause leaves **unresolved** whether the condition in the **subordinate clause will be fulfilled or not**\ - For this reason, we may call it **neutral** (we expect the answer to be either positive or negative), because it behaves like a yes-no question\ - e.g. **If it rains**, **I\'ll stay** at home.\ (the condition is not yet fulfilled, it is possible that it will rain, but we do not know it for sure)\ - e.g. **If it rained**, he **stayed** at home.\ (Ak pršalo, zostal doma.)\ **Compare with**\ - e.g. **If it rained**, he **would stay** at home.\ (Keby pršalo, zostal by doma. It is improbable that it will rain.)\ - In real (open) conditional clauses, the present tense is used to express a future or present event\ - There are some other possibilities of using tenses in real conditional clauses and main clauses\ - Very often, the modal verbs **can, may**, **must** are substituted for the **shall/will** tense:\ e.g. If you arrive before six, I can give you the brochure. **Will, won't [\ ]-** The modal verb **will** may be used in real conditional clauses when one wants to express an **offer** or **polite request** (not a future time!) e.g. If you will open the door (=if you are willing, will you be so kind as to open the door)\ - The negation **won\'t** is used in the meaning of **refuse**:\ e.g. If he won\'t help us (=if he refuses to help us) Second Possible but Improbable condition\ - A **less probable present** or **future event** is expressed with the **past tense** in the main clause\ - Here condition does not agree with reality, with a known fact\ e.g. If I **had** enough time, I **would** **go** to the museum. (it is a pity I have not enough time, this will probably not happen)\ e.g. If you **came** earlier, you **would see** the whole performance. (but I do not suppose you will come earlier)\ e.g. If she **spoke** **up**, they **would hear** every word.\ e.g. If it **were/was** getting dark, I **wouldn\'t** **go** out. (were is more formal, grammatically correct, was commoner in speech) \- The modal verbs **should, could, might** can be used instead of would in the foregoing examples.\ - To avoid ambiguity, **would** very often occurs in the first person of the present conditional, because **should** might have, in certain context, the meaning of **ought to\ -** The verbs **had, came, were, spoke** are not in the past tense but in the **subjunctive** (podmieňovací spôsob, konjunktív)\ - They do not refer to a past event, they refer to a present or future event. ν The same phenomenon occurs in Slovak when the past tense expresses a present or future events:**[\ ]** e.g. He **came** yesterday. (Prišiel včera.)\ This sentence expresses a **fact**, something which is known to have happened, something based on reality\ e.g. If he **came** today or tomorrow. (Keby prišiel dnes alebo zajtra\...)\ In this sentence, an idea is expressed that something is not true or not based on a real fact. \- Taken out of context, the verb and adverbial in the conditional clause do not give sense:\ e.g. He came yesterday - prišiel včera\ e.g. He came tomorrow - prišiel zajtra **Should, were to\ **- A less certain condition is formally expressed by **should** or **were to**:\ e.g. If he should come (=if he came by any chance, keby náhodou prišiel)\ e.g. If it were to be incorrect (ak by to náhodou bolo nesprávne) Would\ - To express an offer or polite request or after the conjunction **if only** to express regret, the modal verb **would** is used:\ e.g. If you would help me with it. (=if you are willing, would you help me, please) (= I wish you helped me.)\ e.g. If only it would stop raining. (= I wished it stopped raining -- kiež by prestalo pršať)\ (I do not think it will stop raining in a short time) Subject-verb inversion\ - In unreal conditional clauses the conjunction **if** may be left out\ - Then the subject-verb inversion is used:\ e.g. **Had I** come that day (= if I had come that day)\ e.g. **Should he** interfere (= **if he interfered** by any chance)\ e.g. **Were I** to do it (= **if I were** to do it) Third Impossible and unrealizable condition\ e.g. If he *had lent* me his car, I **would have given** him my bike.\ e.g. If it **had rained** in May, we **would have made** irrigation canals.\ e.g. If she **had left** for London, she **might have known** English. Non-finite conditional clause\ e.g. If **applicable**, use this method.\ e.g. Unless otherwise **specified**, you can continue your work.\ e.g. But for his money (=if it were not for his money)\ e.g. You must be wise enough **to be able to solve it.** (=if you are able to solve it)\ e.g. In case **of an unexpected event**\... (=if anything unexpected happens)\ e.g. **Papered**, it would be a nice flat. (=if it were papered\...) **Other realization of the conditional\ **e.g. It is raining. I\'ll stay at home, then. (=if it is raining \...)\ e.g. Get up at six, or else you\'ll miss the bus. (=if you do not get up at six\...)\ e.g. You mustn\'t switch on and off the set, otherwise it will need repairing. (=if you switch it on and off\...) **Mixed conditionals\ **- If we talk about **past action and its results in the present**, we use the **mixture of the third and second conditionals.\ - Past action\ ** e.g. He passed his entry exams.\ **- Present result**\ e.g. He studies at university.\ **- Mixed conditional\ ** e.g. If he hadn\'t passed his entry exam, he wouldn\'t be studying at university.\ e.g. If he **is** twenty, **I am** forty.\ e.g. If you **have** enough money, **buy** me a ticket.\ e.g. If she **calls** at five, **I\'ll have finished** my homework.\ e.g. If you **have finished** your homework, you **have to help** me.\ e.g. If the Act **be passed** in Parliament, he **will criticize** it.\ e.g. If you **signed** the document, you **are** lost.\ e.g. If it **snows** today, then my prediction **was/had been** incorrect. **11^th^ ppt** **Direct and reported speech\ The sequence of tenses** **Direct and indirect (reported) speech\ -** In **direct (quoted)** speech (priama reč) inverted commas, or quotation marks (úvodzovky) are used to indicate limits of a statement, question, command or invitation\ - In **indirect (reported)** speech (nepriama reč) the speaker reports or reproduces the statement, question, command or invitation uttered in the present or past. **Direct and reported speech\ 1) Direct speech\ **Jim: „I am his brother."\ Jim: „Will you come Mary?"\ Jim: „Come here, Mary".\ Jim: „Come here, please." **2) Reported speech**\ Jim says that he is his brother.\ Jim asks if she will come.\ Jim orders her to come here.\ Jim invites her to come here. **When we want to repeat someone else's words we can do it in 3 ways\ 1. Repeat the exact words using inverted commas** (direct speech):\ e.g. She said: „I have a degree in Economics".\ **2. Use reported speech with reporting verb in the present, present perfect or future tense** (no change of tense occurs):\ e.g. She says that she has a degree in Economics.\ e.g. She has said that she has a degree in Economics.\ **3. Use reported speech with reporting verb in the past tense** (with change of tense):\ e.g. She said that she had a degree in Economics. **\ **- the most common reporting verbs are: **tell, say, ask**\ - There are also other reporting verbs: **exclaim, suggest, whisper, reply, cry, reflect, suppose, grunt, snarl, hiss** etc.\ - The reporting verb may come at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of the quoted sentence:\ e.g. „The question is," he whispered, „what to do next".\ e.g. „The question is what to do next," he whispered. **Reporting questions\ -** When reporting verb is in the past or past perfect tense, the same tense changes occur as in the statements\ - Reported questions do not have the same word order as direct questions\ - We **do not use „do" or question marks**\ e.g. When does your boss come to the office?\ He asked me when my boss came to the office. **Reporting "yes/no" questions\ **- Yes/no questions are reproduced by an **if-clause** or a **whether-clause** and verbs like **ask, enquire, want to know\ **e.g. „Is John in his office?"\ He asks if **[John is in his office]**. **Reporting "wh-questions"\ -** Wh-questions are reproduced by an **interrogative pronoun** (who, which, where, why, what, when, how, how much etc.), and verbs like ask, enquire, want to know\ e.g. „What is she doing?" He wants to know **[what she is doing.\ ]-** The whole reported sentence represents an indirect question and, syntactically, an **object** **clause** Reporting commands and invitations\ - Commands and invitations are reproduced by an infinitive, and by verbs like **ask, command, order, tell, request, invite**\ - A negative command is reported by a **negative infinitive**.\ e.g. „Stand up"! He ordered us **to stand up.\ ** e.g. „Show me the car please.\ He asked me **to show** him the car." **Back-shift rules\ **- If the reporting clause is in the **present, future, or present perfect**, the reported clause is in the same tense as direct speech:\ e.g. „You will go there".\ He says that you will go there.\ He will say that you will go there.\ He has said that you will go there\ - When the reporting clause is in the **past** or **past perfect**, the reported clause undergoes changes in:\ - **tenses** (sequence of tenses, back-shift of verbs, časová súslednosť),\ - **pronouns** (personal, reflexive, possessive, demonstrative),\ - **adverbs of place and time** (distancing rule). **Shift in tenses\ Direct speech\ **- present (simple or continuous)\ - present perfect\ - past\ - past perfect\ - future\ - present conditional **Shift in pronouns\ Direct speech**\ - I, me, my, mine myself\ - we, us, our, ours, ourselves\ - this these **Shift in adverbs\ Direct speech\ **- here\ - now\ - today\ - tomorrow\ - yesterday\ - ago\ - last week/year\ - next **The back-shift rule is disregarded in the following instances[:\ ]-**When the present tense expresses a universal fact which can be applied not only to the time of the utterance, but is valid in general\ (universal truths about the Earth, the Sun, physical quality of materials, quotation of learned people, irrevocable facts)\ e.g. He said that the Earth revolves round the Sun.\ (not the past tense because the truth about the Earth\'s revolving round the Sun is general) \- When the present tense expresses a repeated, characteristic, habitual or customary action.\ e.g. Susan: „I go to music school on Tuesdays."\ Susan said that **she goes** to music school on Tuesday. (she usually goes and perhaps will go in future, it is a repeated and habitual action) \- The modal verbs **must, ought to, should, would, might** do not change.\ e.g. „I must do it".\ He said that he **must** do it.\ He said that he **had to** do it.\ e.g. „I would do it."\ He said that he **would** do it.\ e.g. „They may come."\ He said that they **may** come. **1) Classification of simple sentences according to the content**\ **Declarative Sentences:**\ - affirmative - statements, statements tags, short answers, pro-forms (or word substitutes\ - negative\ **Interrogative Sentences:\ **- verbal questions; negative questions; tag questions; pronominal questions; verbless, non-finite, elided questions; declarative questions; alternative/exclusive questions; exclamatory questions; rhetorical questions\ **Imperative Sentences:\ **- plain imperative, imperative with subject, imperative with let, negative imperative, verbless imperative, imperative with modal verb\ **Exclamatory Sentences**\ - Exclamatory questions (zvolacie otázky)\ - Exclamatory sentences beginning with here, there\ - Exclamations with modal auxiliaries may, should, would\ - Exclamations in the form of statements with the stress on the auxiliary verb\ - Exclamations in the form of statements with the stress on the auxiliary verb\ - Exclamations introduced with an infinitive\ - Echo exclamations as repetitions of a sentence element\ - Interjections, non-finite and verbless exclamatory sentences **Declarative -- affirmative sentence (kladné ozn. vety)\ **- classification: statements, statements tags, short answers, pro-forms (word substitutes)\ 1**) Statements and the word order\ **- subject-verb order, verb-subject order, direct object- indirect object order, adverbial order\ **a) Subject-verb order\ **- In affirmative sentences or statements the **subject is normally followed by a verb phrase** (S-V):\ - e.g. Peter came on time. (Peter prišiel načas.)\ - When **stressed, the auxiliary do/does/did comes before lexical verb:**\ - e.g. Peter did come on time. (Peter naozaj prišiel načas.)\ **b) Verb-subject order\ **- There are cases when the word-order (slovosled) is different when the **verb-subject** order is used\ **- Reasons for subject-verb order:\ ** - To give the subject a **final, more prominent, position**.\ - In **literary English** and in more **formal style**, if the subject is long, an intransitive verb may come first: e.g. Came Peter and John with their wives and children.\ - In **indirect speech** if the **subject is not a personal pronoun**: e.g. Switch off the light!\ Peter said. / said Peter. / he said.\ - In **conditional clauses** when the conjunction **if is omitted**, the auxiliary comes before the subject: - e.g. Should he come.... (= If he should come...)\ - e.g. Were he to come.... (= If he were to come \...)\ - e.g. Had he come..... (= If he had come...)\ **- Rarely a question-tag may come first**: e.g. Aren't you, you're breaking out again,\ - **An adverbial comes at the beginning of a sentence** (A-V-S):\ e.g. **Near the house** stood the tower. (stressed, standard usage)\ e.g. **Around m**e sits the night. (H. Pinter)\ - **After** **here, there** which are in informal English, regarded as **"false"** subjects and are called expletives: e.g. (T)here are many brothers and sisters.\ **c) Direct object-indirect object order\ **- Normally the order of the objects is **Oi-Od**: e.g. They showed him the picture.\ - The reverse order (**Od-Oi**) is used when the indirect object is longer to make the distance between the verb and the direct object shorter: e.g. They showed the picture to **all visitors from abroad**\ - In literary English, the direct object may take an initial position: e.g. **Poetry** he likes, but **thrillers** he hates.\ **d) Adverbial order\ **- adverbial can occupy an initial, medial, or final position. ν The order in the final position is:\ **MANNER (How?) PLACE (Where?) TIME (When?)\ ** e.g. He was driving dangerously through the park yesterday.\ e.g. **Yesterday** he was dangerously driving through the park.\ **- the order of time adverbials\ DURATION** (For how long?)\ **FREQUENCY** (How often?)\ **POINT OF TIME** (When?)\ e.g. He watches TV four hours every day from 7 till 11.\ **- the order of place adverbials\ DIRECTION** (Where to?) **POSITION** (Where?)\ e.g. He went to church near the Town Hall. e.g. To church he went near the Town Hall.\ **- the order of the adverbials of position and direction\ SMALLER PLACE LARGER PLACE\ ** e.g. He spent a lot of time in Venceslas Square in Prague.\ e.g. In Prague he spent a lot of time in Venceslas Place. S\ **SMALLER PLACE LARGER PLACE\ **e.g. He went to the Faculty in Nitra. e.g. In Nitra he went to the Faculty.\ - the order of the adverbials of frequency\ **NUMBER OF TIMES PERIOD OF TIME\ SHORTER PERIOD LONGER PERIOD\ **e.g. I see him five times a day on Mondays. **2) Statement tags\ **- Informally, the subject is repeated in a tag either at the end of a sentence or at the beginning of it\ - This phenomenon is called the **amplificatory tag** or **statement tag\ **- It is used only in spoken English\ - Intonation in the tag is rising.\ e.g. **He** is a learned man, **our teacher**.\ e.g. **She** is a real sweet person, **your mother.\ **e.g. **She** will tell you, **my sister,** any time you call.\ e.g. **He** is a very sensible boy, **young Mick\ **- The tag may contain an auxiliary:\ e.g. He helped us o lot, **Peter did.\ ** Compare Slovak: e.g. **Peter, ten** nám veľmi pomohol\ e.g. She was very fond of your mother, **she was**. e.g. Yes, he is ever so nice, **Mr. Argyle is.\ **- Both subjects, in the sentence and in the tag, are pronouns:\ e.g. **Me, I** was always lucky, always was. e.g. **That** had been life, **that** had!\ - The subject may be more explicit in the main sentence, while the subject in the tag is realized by a pronoun:... he is a boy without problems, **that one.** **3) Short answers**\ - To avoid repetition of a lexical verb, the auxiliary verbs **do, have, be and the modal verbs will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might, dare, need, ought to** are used in short answers with falling intonation.\ - Study the following examples:\ e.g. Do you know about it? **Yes, I [do.]**\ e.g. Do you know about it? **No, I** **[don't.]**\ e.g. Will he come to see us? **Yes, he will./ No, he won't**\ e.g. Dare you stay here during the night? **Yes, I dare./ No I daren't.**\ - To express agreement with the statement:\ e.g. John plays tennis on Tuesday. **Yes, he does**.\ e.g. The workers have finished it. **Yes, they have.\ **- To express disagreement with the statement:\ e.g. John doesn't play tennis on Tuesday. **No, he doesn't.\ **e.g. The workers haven't finished it**. No, they haven't**\ - To express the idea that somebody else does or did the action performed in the first sentence, **too**:\ e.g. Sophie plays the violin**. So does Jim.**\ e.g. This boy is a good pupil. **So are other boys.**\ e.g. They can do it. **So can I./ I can do so, too./I can do it, too.**\ e.g. He is a clerk. **So am I./Me too./I am too**\ - To express the idea that somebody else **doesn't** or **didn't** perform an action **either** (Slovak **tiež nie**):\ e.g. Sophie cannot play the violin. **Neither can her brother/Nor can her brother./Her brother cannot either.\ ** e.g. Jim is not a good student. **Neither are they./Nor are they./They aren't either./ They are neither.**\ e.g. He doesn't go fishing. **Neither do I./ Me neither./I don't either.**\ - To express surprised agreement:\ e.g. I have found the lost purse. **So you have.\ **e.g. It is snowing outside. **So it is.\ **- Combination with a question tag:\ e.g. He hates listening to music. **Oh, he does, does he?**\ e.g. I can't drink wine**. Oh, you can't, can't you.\ **- To express a somewhat milder command or polite offer:\ e.g. Shall we leave before seven? **Let's**.\ e.g. Can I have a glass of beer? **Please do.\ **- With the pro-forms **so, that, it** to refer to an idea expressed in the statement:\ e.g. **[Have you sent the telegrame?]** Yes, I did **[so]**. Yes, I did **[it]**. Yes, I did **[that]**.\ e.g. I left the school unlocked. You should have done it. You should have done so. You should have done that **4) Pro-forms\ **- Pro-forms (prop-words) are shorter words, in particular **adverbs, pronouns and demonstratives**, which may be substituted for various syntactic elements in a sentence.\ - They can **stand for**: **adverbials of time, adverbials of place, noun phrases, the whole statement as direct object\ a) Adverbials of time\ **- *then, that* (as subject)\ e.g. The train arrived **at six**. We saw each other **then.**\ e.g. We saw each other at **six o'clock**. / **That** was the time we met. / **At six o'clock** was the time we met\ **b) Adverbials of place\ - here, there, that, it** (the latter two as subject):\ e.g. The train stopped **at a small town.\ **1. I spent a weekend **[there]**.\ 2. **[At a small town]** was where we met**. [It/that]** was the place we met.\ **c) Noun phrases\ **- one, all (refers to more than two), both (refers to two), some, any, each, either, neither (the last two refer to two), none (refers to more than two), the same, the former \... the latter, first \... second\... last, such, so.\ e.g. John and Mary are not at home. **Both** left for Prague.\ e.g. I have just bought bananas. Give me some.\ e.g. Sue phoned her two friends. **Neither** answered.\ e.g. Sue phoned her three friends. **None** answered.\ e.g. I will have a glass of beer. **The same** for me, please.\ e.g. He prefers Italian cars to German (**ones**).\ e.g. Which car do you like? **The one** made in Italy.\ e.g. He is the Dean, **as such**, he has much responsibility.\ **d) the whole statement as direct object\ **- **which** (must be preceded by comma) so, not:\ e.g. They spent there a lot of money, **which** I don't like. (I do not like their spending a lot of money.) **Pro-form which\ **- Study the change in meaning of proform **which**.\ - The **reference** is either: to the **preceding phrase** (comma is not used),\ to the **preceding sentence** (comma is used)\ e.g. He is selling **[his red Ford, which]** I don\'t like. (Predáva svoj červený Ford, čo sa mi nepáči.)\ - I do not like his selling his red Ford.\ e.g. He is selling **his red Ford which I don\'t like**. (Predáva svoj červený Ford, **[ktorý]** sa mi nepáči.)\ - I do not like his red Ford. **Pro-form so/not\ **- In English there is a type of pro-form statement with:\ - the pronoun **so** in the **positive statement,**\ - the particle **not** in the **negative statement.**\ - **This type is restricted in use to a few verbs such as**: be afraid, believe, expect, fear, hear, hope, imagine, say, suppose, tell, think, fancy, presume, understand, appear, seem, guess.\ e.g. [Father will come]. Jack hopes **so**, but Jim expects not.\ e.g. Is it going to rain? **I hope not.**\ e.g. Could they come earlier? **I suppose so.**\ e.g. He broke his leg. I am **afraid so./ I have heard so**.\ e.g. Will your office be on the second floor? **I have heard so./ I believe so./ I expect so.** **2) Negative sentences\ **- The **verb phrase** in syntax deals with contrast of:\ - affirmative statement/negation - statement/question - statement/command\ - active/passive voice\ - An affirmative statement **differs** from a negative sentence in:\ - the negative element **not** added to a verb, and some other elements\ **Some** is used in declarative sentences for its [positive orientation.\ ] **Any** is used in negative (and also interrogative) sentences for its [neutral orientation.] **Sentence negation vs. partial negation**\ e.g. I have read **some** books. (Prečítal som nejaké knihy.)\ I have **not** read **any** books. (Neprečítal som žiadne knihy.)\ \-- The whole sentence is put into the negative (vetný zápor).\ - If only a part of the sentence is put into negation, we speak about **partial negation** (členský zápor):\ e.g. I have **not** read **some** book.\ - The sentence is partly positive because of **some-element** which has positive orientation, and partly negative because of **not-element** and means: (I have read some books and some of them I have not read.) **Positive/negative**\ - If a positive sentence is put into negation, **the positively oriented element** must be changed into **negatively oriented one:\ Positive elements** (positive bias, assertive forms)\ **Negative elements** (negative bias, non-assertive forms) \- With the negation of the whole sentence, the negative element must come first and all **any**-words follow:\ e.g. He has not ever seen **anything** **anywhere**.\ e.g. He has never seen **anything** **anywhere**. e.g Nobody has ever seen **anything**. **Ambiguities**\ - Ambiguity with quantifiers **all, both, every, each** - Ambiguity with a numeral\ - Ambiguity in clauses of purpose - Ambiguity after a preposition 1**) Ambiguity with quantifiers all, both, every, each\ **- e.g. I didn\'t buy both books. **means** 1. I bought one 2. I bought neither\ **2) Ambiguity with a numeral\ **- e.g. I didn\'t receive two postcards. **means** 1. I didn\'t receive any. 2. I received only one.\ 3. I received more than two.\ **3) Ambiguity in clauses of purpose**\ - e.g. She didn\'t come to watch TV. **means** 1. She didn\'t come. 2. She came, but it was not that she wanted to watch TV, it was for some other reason.\ **4) Ambiguity after a preposition\ **- e.g. He wants to belong to nobody\'s group. **means** 1. He doesn\'t want to belong to anybody\'s group. 2. He wants to belong to a group which has no apparent leader **Words with negative meaning\ **- The following words are **implicitly** **negative** as opposed to **explicitly negative** words such as: **no, nothing, never.\ **- They are therefore used with elements of negative or neutral orientation (any-words like **anybody, either, far, much**).\ - **barely, hardly, scarcely** (almost not) e.g. He can do some work. He can hardly do [any] work\ - **rarely, seldom** (not often) e.g. He goes to some meetings. He seldom goes to [any] meetings.\ - **little** (not much), **few** (not many).\ e.g. They know **a little** about some of these countries. (they know something)\ They know **little** about any of these countries. (they do not know much)\ e.g**. A few** people sometimes see it. (some people)\ **Few** people have ever seen it. (not many people)\ - **only, too, without** e.g. I know only one person who can tell me **anything** about it.\ e.g. This book is too learned for **any** child to read.\ e.g. He returned without **any** money.\ **- forget, fail, deny, prevent, avoid\ **e.g. She forgot to do **any** work. (she did not remember to do it)\ e.g. He failed to go **anywhere**. (he did not succeed in going anywhere)\ **- hard, difficult, ignorant, reluctant, lack, absence\ **e.g. The lack of **any** ammunition caused the army\'s defeat. (the army did not have any)\ e.g. He is too ignorant to write **any** essay on this subject. (he is not educated enough to write it) **Subject-verb inversion\ **- When a negative word occupies an **initial position** in the sentence.\ - The aim is to put negative element in a position it does not usually occupy and thus making it focus of information:\ e.g. Science can **hardly** give an explanation of the non-existence of God.\ **Hardly** can science give an explanation of the non-existence of God. **3) Interrogative sentences. Questions\ **- Questions using modal auxiliary verbs are formed by putting the subject and verb in opposite order (V-S).\ e.g. He is a student. **Is he** a student? e.g. She will go there. **Will she go** there?\ e.g. They have a car. **Have they (got)** a car? (British) **Do they have** a car? (American)\ - In British English the verb **have** forms the question with **do/does/did** when it [does not refer to the idea of property] or to an object which can be touched:\ e.g. Have you got a new house? (máte, vlastníte?)\ e.g. **Do you have** problems with it? (máte, mávate?)\ e.g. **Do you have** breakfast at seven? (raňajkujete?)\ - Exceptionally. In informal English, the auxiliary **do/does/did** is dropped in the question.\ - This is considered to be substandard and not common in present-day English:\ e.g. How goes it? e.g. How come? How comes it that \...? e.g. How went it? e.g. What say you to? **Classification of questions\ **- **Verbal questions, questions expecting a positive or negative answer, also called yes-no questions** (zisťovacie otázky)\ - **Negative questions** (záporné otázky)\ - **Tag questions/question tags** (opytovacie dovetky)\ - **Pronominal questions, questions with interrogative pronouns, also called wh-questions** (doplňovacie otázky)\ - **Verbless, non-finite, elided questions** (bezslovesné otázky, bez určitého slovesného tvaru a elidované otázky)\ - **Declarative questions** (oznamovacie vety ako otázky)\ - **Alternative/exclusive questions** (vylučovacie otázky)\ - **Exclamatory questions** (zvolacie otázky)\ - **Rhetorical questions** (rečnícke otázky) **1) Verbal questions\ **- These questions are like negative sentences in that they require elements of neutral statement or non-assertive forms.\ - This type of question has rising intonation.\ - The answer expected is either positive or negative or similar expressions: **perhaps, never, not at all, sure, certainly, of course.** e.g. I have read **some** books. Have you read **any** books?\ - **Any** is used in the question because it expresses neutral orientation.\ - The listener does not know whether you have read any books or not, that is why the answer may be: e.g. Yes, I have. No, I haven\'t.\ - **Some** is used in the statement because it expresses a positively oriented idea, a fact.\ - When used in a question, **some** gives this question its positive orientation:\ e.g. Have you read **some** books?\ e.g. Why was she laughing? Had **someone** told her a joke? \- When there is a **positive element** in a question, instead of neutral element, the question turns **positive**:\ e.g. Have you finished it **yet**? (Už si to skončil?)\ e.g. Have you finished it **already**? (Však si to už skončil?)\ - For this reason **some** is often used in polite questions and offers:\ e.g. Will you have **some** wine? (offer: Prosím, dajte si víno.)\ e.g. Will you have **any** wine? (question: Budete piť nejaké víno?) **2) Negative questions**\ - The English **positive** question: Do you want it? Chceš to?/Nechceš to?\ - the English **negative** question, usually contracted: Don\'t you want it? is more a statement of surprise than a question.\ - The speaker thinks that the answer is **yes**, but found out that he was wrong and he is surprised to hear that the listener\'s reaction is negative.\ - The Slovak equivalent could be: A čo ty to nechceš? Ako to, že to nechceš?\ - Since the answer expected is **yes, negative questions** are used in polite offers, invitations and exclamations:\ e.g. Won\'t you have a cup of tea? (Prosím, dajte si šálku čaju.)\ e.g. Isn\'t she a beautiful girl! (To je ale pekné dievča!)\ - If there is a **positive item** (some, already \...) in a negative question, the positive answer is expected:\ e.g. Don\'t you want **something**? (A čo ty niečo nechceš? Ty predsa niečo chceš.)\ Compare the following:\ Do you want **anything**? (Však chceš niečo?)\ Do you want **something**? (Však chceš niečo?)\ Don\'t you want **anything**? (Ako to, že nechceš nič?)\ Don\'t you want **something**? (Ty predsa niečo chceš?) **3) Tag questions\ **- There are **four main types of tag questions:\ 1**. They teach French, don\'t they? -- rising intonation\ **2.** They teach French, don\'t they? - falling intonation\ **3.** They don\'t teach French, do they? - rising intonation\ **4.** They don\'t teach French, do they? - falling intonation\ - In tags with rising intonation, the speaker expects the answer to be either: **Yes, they do.** or **No, they don\'t.\ **- in tags with **falling intonation,** the speaker expects the answer to be **positive**.\ - It is more a statement and the speaker wants the listener to confirm his or her opinion (Však učia po francúzsky\ - **The general rule\ - positive statement -- negative question tag\ - negative statement -- positive question tag\ **- **Auxiliaries and modal verbs occur in the tag:** e.g. She can come every day, can\'t she?\ e.g. He won\'t accept it, will he?\ - Lexical verbs „reflect" in the tag as the auxiliary **do, does, did:** e.g. She wrote a letter, **didn\'t she**?\ e.g. He drinks a lot, **doesn\'t he**?\ - **Negative tags** are almost always **contracted**. In a formal and written style, uncontracted form may be used: e.g. It was raining, **wasn\'t it**? It was raining, was it not?\ - **In rare cases, the tag occupies the initial position**: e.g. Aren\'t you, you\'re breaking out again,\...\ - The first person singular **I** has no contracted form, yet there are two ways to express it, both being usually pronounced **aren\'t I:** I am now your colleague, **am I not? / aren\'t I?\ **- The tag is **positive** when **the statement contains an** **implicitly negative word**, this being perhaps not a very frequent case in American English: e.g. He can **hardly** do it, **can he**?\ e.g. She **forgot** to do it, **did** she?\ e.g. They **denied** talking to anyone here, **did** they?\ e.g. **Few** pupils came to the park, **did they**?\ e.g. He knows **little** about it, **does he**?\ - The **subject of the tag must always be a** **pronoun**:\ e.g. Peter took a bus to school, **didn\'t he**? e.g. \*Peter took a bus to school, **didn\'t Peter?**\ **Other types of question tags**\ **5. The statement and the tag are positive.\ **- The sentence has rising intonation and is very often preceded by **Oh**, or **So.**\ - It sometimes expresses **sarcasm** on the part of the speaker.\ - This type of tag is mainly used in **British English.\ ** e.g. **So**, this is your new house, is it? (Toto je ten váš nový dom?)\ **Oh** you call this a car, do you? (Tak tomu vy hovoríte auto?\ **6. Both the statement and the tag are positive or negative.\ **- In this type two persons participate in a **dialogue**.\ - They express **surprise** or **polite remark.\ **- **Intonation** is either **rising** (surprise, confirmation of the speaker\'s statement) or **falling**.\ - Their English equivalents are Really? Indeed? (skutočne?, naozaj?)\ e.g. A. They don\'t teach French. B: Don\'t they?\ e.g. A: I am a teacher. B: Are you?\ e.g. A: She came late? B: Did she?\ **7. The whole tag is in the form of a statement tag combined with a question tag (neslovesné jednočlenné vety časticové).\ ** - This tag is either **positive/negative.\ **- It expresses a **sarcastic** **comment** about a speaker\'s remark**, anger** or **surprise**.\ - It may be preceded by **Oh**. Intonation is falling.\ - Their Slovak equivalents are **Ale čo?, Skutočne?\ ** e.g. A: I won\'t come again. B: **Oh, you won\'t, won\'t you?**\ A: He came again. B: **He did, did he?**\ **8. To make commands sound more polite, a positive or negative tag is used, its verb being a modal verb:**\ e.g. Come here, *will you?/won\'t you? would you?/ could you? can you?/can\'t you?\ *e.g. Let\'s go away, *shall we?* e.g. Let me go there, *will you?/won\'t you?\ ***9. There is a type of tag in colloquial English where the subject of the tag is not identical with the subject of the statement\ **- The agreement between two subjects is notional, which means that this disagreem