Syntax Review PDF

Created by Turbolearn AI Introduction to Syntax Syntax has traditionally taken the sentence as the starting point. Smaller units are regarded as building blocks of sentence structure. The parts into which a sentence can be segmented are called the constituents of the sentence. Linguistic Units The...

Created by Turbolearn AI Introduction to Syntax Syntax has traditionally taken the sentence as the starting point. Smaller units are regarded as building blocks of sentence structure. The parts into which a sentence can be segmented are called the constituents of the sentence. Linguistic Units The term immediate constituents ICs refers to those constituents which together form a higher-order constituent. For example, in 'John took a walk', 'a' and 'walk' are the ICs of 'a walk' and 'took' and 'a walk' are the ICs of 'took a walk'. Phrases, Words, and Morphemes Constituents can also be considered not as building blocks of sentence structure but as independent linguistic objects with their own characteristics and internal structure. From this point of view, they are called phrases. Just like constituents, phrases may consist of single words or several words. We can distinguish several types of phrases according to the class to which the head themostdominantconstituent of the phrase belongs: Noun phrase: 'a walk', 'a walk in the sun' Verb phrase: 'took a walk', 'could have been fun' Adjective phrase: 'fairly interesting', 'too good to marry' Adverb phrase: 'admittedly', 'very well' Prepositional phrase: 'in the morning sun', 'in Spain' Rankscale and Rankshift The hierarchy of units of linguistic description is as follows: Page 1  Created by Turbolearn AI Unit Description Sentence Largest unit of syntactic description Phrase Consists of words Word Consists of morphemes Morpheme Smallest unit of linguistic description Sounds Basic unit of speech However, units are not always composed of units of the next lowest rank. This phenomenon is called rankshift. Functions and Categories Every linguistic unit exceptthesentence can be considered as an element that plays a role within a larger structure, or as something with its own characteristics and internal structure. A function refers to the role played by a linguistic unit within a larger structure. A category refers to the class or type of a linguistic unit. For example, the units "John" and "walk" are both nouns, but they have different functions in the sentence "John took a walk". Functions The following are some common functions: Direct Object DO: a single complement immediately following a verb if it can become the subject in a passive sentence. Indirect Object IO: associated with the first two complements that can be the subject of a passive sentence. Benefactive Subject BO: resembles the IO, but can be replaced by a prepositional phrase with 'for' instead of 'to'. Subject Complement SC : complements the verb, but is related to the subject of the sentence. Object Complement OC : predicates something about the DO, which it follows. Predicator Complement P C : a miscellaneous type of complement that does not fit well in any of the types above. Page 2  Created by Turbolearn AI Categories Phrases consist minimally of a Head. The Head can be preceded by a pre-Head string and followed by a post-Head string. The Noun Phrase NP A noun phrase has a noun as its Head. The general structure of the noun phrase is as follows: Component Description Predeterminer Optional, e.g. 'all', 'double', 'half' Determiner Optional, e.g. 'the', 'a', 'my' Postdeterminer Optional, e.g. 'many', 'few', 'last' Premodifier Optional, e.g. 'very', 'happy' Head Required, e.g. 'dog', 'city' Postmodifier Optional, e.g. 'in the park', 'that I saw yesterday' Examples of noun phrases: NP thechildren NP happychildren NP thehappychildren The Adjective Phrase AP An adjective phrase has an adjective as its Head. Examples of adjective phrases: Page 3  Created by Turbolearn AI AP clever AP verylate AP happy ## Adjective Phrases An adjective phrase is a phrase whose head is an adjective. The general structure of an adjective phrase is: premodifier* HEAD postmodifier* Premodifier: an adverb phrase that modifies the adjective head, such as very or extremely Postmodifier: a phrase that follows the adjective head, such as a prepositional phrase (e.g. afraid of mice), a that-clause (e.g. worried that he might fall), or a non-finite clause (e.g. eager to please) An adjective phrase is a phrase that functions as a modifier of a noun or pronoun, and whose head is an adjective. Examples of adjective phrases: happy to meet you ready to go afraid of the dark Adverb Phrases An adverb phrase is a phrase whose head is an adverb. The general structure of an adverb phrase is: premodifier* HEAD postmodifier* Premodifier: an adverb phrase that modifies the adverb head, such as very or extremely Postmodifier: a phrase that follows the adverb head, such as the adverb enough (e.g. well enough) An adverb phrase is a phrase that functions as a modifier of a verb, adjective, or another adverb, and whose head is an adverb. Examples of adverb phrases: Page 4  Created by Turbolearn AI very recently quite suddenly well enough Verb Phrases A verb phrase consists of verbal forms only, except in the case of multi-word verbs. The principal part of the verb phrase is the lexical verb. Verb Phrase Example Single lexical verb writes Lexical verb with auxiliary verb may write Lexical verb with auxiliary verbs may have written, may have been writing Prepositional Phrases A prepositional phrase usually consists of a preposition and a prepositional complement thepost − headstring. Prepositional Phrase Example Preposition + noun phrase through the window Preposition + prepositional phrase straight through the window Phrases within Phrases Phrases can contain smaller phrases within them. For example: small children contains an adjective phrase small across the road contains a noun phrase the road Subordination and Coordination Subordination is a non-symmetrical or hierarchical relation between two clauses, where one clause is a constituent part of the other. Coordination is a symmetrical relation between two clauses, where they are equal in status. Page 5  Created by Turbolearn AI Type of Description Example Relation One clause is a constituent part of I went to the store because I Subordination the other needed milk I went to the store, and I Coordination Two clauses are equal in status bought milk Syntax Syntax concerns the structure of sentences, and sentence structure may be said to have three aspects: grouping, function, and word order. Grouping: the grouping of words into meaningful and functional phrases Function: the relationship of the noun phrases to the verb and to other words and word groups in the sentence Word order: the temporal or linear sequence of words in a sentence Syntax is the study of the rules that govern the structure of sentences in a language. Aspects of Syntactic Structure The three aspects of syntactic structure are represented in a tree diagram of a sentence. Grouping: recognized in the tree diagram as nodes or branching points Function: concerns the relationship of the noun phrases to the verb and to other words and word groups in the sentence Word order: the temporal or linear sequence of words in a sentence Examples of aspects of syntactic structure: Those pesky beavers inhabit a narrow stream above the lake The corner grocery sells motor oil but it closes at ten## Word Order Word order refers to the arrangement of words in a sentence. In English, word order is typically expressed in a linear, left-to-right arrangement, which parallels the temporal order of elements in speech. However, in other languages, word order may differ even when groupings and functions are the same. Page 6  Created by Turbolearn AI Examples of Word Order In Spanish, the word order in noun phrases can be different from English, as seen in the example: Spanish: nuestro barrio hermoso ourprettyneighborhood English: our pretty neighborhood In Arabic, there is a lot of freedom in word order, as seen in the following sentences, all of which mean "The girl saw a house": ra?t lbintu baytan sawthegirlahouse ?albintu baytan ra?at thegirlahousesaw baytan ra?at -lbintu housesawthegirl Recursion in Syntax Recursion refers to the ability of a phrase to be expanded by the expansion of phrases, including phrases of the same type, within itself. This allows for the creation of complex sentences with multiple levels of embedding. Examples of Recursion Sentences within sentences: Isaid[Iknow ]s Noun phrases within noun phrases: threecoinsin[thefountain ]Np Verb phrases within verb phrases: likesto[playgames ]vp Prepositional phrases within noun phrases within prepositional phrases: for[avacation[in[themonth[ofMay ]]]]PP Page 7  Created by Turbolearn AI Coordination Coordination is a type of recursion that involves joining two or more phrases of the same type using a coordinating conjunction such as "and" or "or". Examples of coordination include: Coordinated sentences: Birds fly and fish swim Coordinated noun phrases: birds and bees Coordinated verb phrases: sink or swim Coordinated prepositional phrases: by hook or by crook Coordinated adjective phrases: used but wearable Abstractness of Syntax Abstractness refers to the fact that the constituents and functions of sentences are not concretely marked, either in speech or in writing. This means that the syntactic structure of a sentence is not directly observable, but rather must be inferred by the listener or reader. Evidence for Abstractness The following types of evidence support the abstractness of syntax: Replacement: the ability to replace a phrase with a single word, such as replacing a sentence with a noun or pronoun Movement: the ability to move a phrase from one position to another in a sentence, such as moving a noun phrase from the beginning to the end of a sentence Grouping ambiguity: the ability to interpret a sentence in multiple ways due to different possible groupings of words Knowledge of Constituents Our knowledge of constituents is revealed through: the ability to recognize and manipulate phrases, such as replacing a phrase with a single word or moving a phrase from one position to another in a sentence. Page 8  Created by Turbolearn AI Knowledge of Functions Our knowledge of functions is revealed through: the ability to recognize and use different grammatical functions, such as subject-verb agreement and the use of determiners with nouns. The following table summarizes the different types of evidence for abstractness: Type of Description Example Evidence Replacement Replacing a phrase with a single word I said I liked it. I said so. It is local farmers that sell Moving a phrase from one position to Movement vegetables at the city another market. Interpreting a sentence in multiple ways Grouping due to different possible groupings of Nutritious food and drink ambiguity words The following table summarizes the different types of functions: Type of Function Description Example The noun phrase that Subject performs the action The dog runs. described by the verb The relationship The big red Head and modifier between a noun and car. its modifiers The different The dog noun categories of words, Parts of speech runs verb such as nouns, verbs, quickly adverb. and adjectives Linguistic ambiguity refers to the phenomenon where a sentence or phrase can be interpreted in multiple ways. This can occur due to various factors, including lexical ambiguity, grouping ambiguity, and functional ambiguity. Page 9  Created by Turbolearn AI Types of Ambiguity The following are the three types of linguistic ambiguity: Lexical Ambiguity: occurs when a word has different meanings. For example, in the sentence "We met at the bank," the word "bank" can refer to either a financial institution or the land at the side of a river. Grouping Ambiguity: occurs when words may have different groupings. For example, in the sentence "They served expensive wine and cheese," the word "expensive" can be grouped with either "wine" or "wine and cheese." Functional Ambiguity: occurs when a word or phrase has different functions but not different meanings or groupings. For example, in the sentence "Visiting professors can be boring," the word "professors" can be either the subject or object of the verb "visit." Definitions A subject is the noun or noun phrase that typically refers to the doer of the action expressed by a transitive verb in an active sentence or to the main person or thing involved in the event or state expressed by an intransitive verb. A direct object is the noun phrase that expresses the entity affected by the action of the verb. A prepositional object is the noun phrase that follows a preposition and functions as an object of the preposition. Examples of Ambiguity The following sentences are examples of ambiguous sentences: This pen is empty Are the chickens ready to eat? Do you want to try on that dress in the window? This old car needs new brakes and antifreeze. What gets wetter the more it dries? Answer : atowel. Unboundedness of Syntax The length of a sentence is unbounded, meaning that words can always be added to a sentence. For example, the sentence "The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog" can be modified by adding words in various positions. Page 10  Created by Turbolearn AI Recursion Recursion refers to the phenomenon where a phrase or sentence can be embedded within another phrase or sentence. The following are examples of recursion: Type of Recursion Example Fiona goes to church and eats out every Sentences within sentences Sunday, and Ray does too. Noun phrases within noun phrases The man in the corner is my friend. Verb phrases within verb phrases I want to eat and drink. Prepositional phrases within The book on the table in the room is mine. prepositional phrases Coordinated sentences I like reading and writing. Coordinated noun phrases I like apples and bananas. Coordinated verb phrases I can run and jump. Coordinated prepositional phrases The book is on the table and under the chair. Replacement and Movement of Phrases Replacement and movement of phrases are tests used to identify phrases in a sentence. For example, in the sentence "These children love anything chocolate," the following replacements can be made: They love anything chocolate. They love it. They do. Movement of phrases can also be used to identify phrases, as in the sentence "These children play with matches," which can be paraphrased as: It is these children who play with matches. It is matches that these children play with. Play with matches is what these children do. Grouping Ambiguity Grouping ambiguity occurs when words can be grouped in different ways to convey different meanings. For example, in the sentence "I know a cafe in the theater district near the metro station," the phrase "near the metro station" can be grouped with either "theater district" or "cafe." The following are examples of grouping ambiguity: Page 11  Created by Turbolearn AI I know a cafe in the theater district near the metro station. Oh, that's just a crazy economist's idea. They admitted that we had attended only with reluctance. We watched a video of European automobile races. Let's have chocolate cake and ice cream. The Dean wants to eliminate sex and race bias in student organizations. They ought to compete against more competitive teams. We discovered that they lost the election by chance. She fed her dog meat. Grammatical Relations Grammatical relations refer to the relationships between words in a sentence, such as subject, direct object, indirect object, and object of preposition. The following are examples of grammatical relations: Direct Indirect Object of Sentence Subject Object Object Preposition The boy ran The boy - - - The boy ate an apple The boy an apple - - The boy gave Tom an apple The boy an apple Tom - The boy gave an apple to Tom The boy an apple - Tom The concept of Universal Grammar UG is a core idea in linguistic theory, first proposed by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s. It suggests that certain properties of languages appear to be innate to human beings, regardless of the specific language they speak. Definition of Universal Grammar Universal Grammar: A set of linguistic principles and constraints that are hypothesized to form an innate basis for the structure of any natural language. Key Principles of Universal Grammar The theory of Universal Grammar is based on several key principles, including: Page 12  Created by Turbolearn AI The existence of innate linguistic knowledge in all humans The presence of shared linguistic structures across languages The ability to acquire language without explicit teaching or feedback Levels of Language Under the UG framework, languages are considered to be composed of different levels, with each level containing specific rules and principles that govern the structure and use of the language. The two main levels are: Level Description Competence Internalized linguistic knowledge possessed by an individual Performance An individual's actual use of language in speech or writing Language Acquisition Device LAD The theory of Universal Grammar also introduces the idea of a Language Acquisition Device LAD within the human brain. This LAD is believed to be responsible for understanding the structure of a language and applying its underlying principles. Characteristics of Universal Grammar According to the Universal Grammar theory, there are several key characteristics that all languages share, including: 1. Structure-dependence: Grammatical rules apply consistently based on the structure of the language, not on the specific words used 2. Recursion: The ability to create potentially infinite sentences or phrases through the nesting of clauses or phrases within other clauses or phrases 3. Modularity: Different components of linguistic competence function independently but are interconnected 4. Displacement: The capacity for humans to refer to objects, events, and concepts that are not present in the immediate environment Example of Recursion An example of recursion in language is the sentence: "The cat, which was chased by the dog, quickly climbed the tree." This sentence demonstrates the embedding of one clause inside another, resulting in a more complex structure. Page 13  Created by Turbolearn AI Universal Grammar in English Language Syntax The English language exhibits several syntactic structures that support the theory of Universal Grammar, including: Word order: The typical word order follows a subject-verb-object SV O pattern Phrase structure: The formation of sentences using verb phrases V P , noun phrases NP , adjective phrases AdjP , and prepositional phrases P P Agreement: Subjects and verbs must agree in number singularorplural Negation: The existence of linguistic devices to express negativity Questions: English questions usually follow a specific structure to differentiate from declarative sentences Applications of Universal Grammar The Universal Grammar theory has numerous applications in real-life situations, including: Language acquisition in children: The innate linguistic knowledge provided by Universal Grammar makes it easier for children to learn their native language Second language learning: The theory of Universal Grammar implies that learning a second language should be relatively effortless, given the shared linguistic principles Syntactic transfer: When learning a second language, speakers may transfer syntactic structures from their first language to the new language Language typology and diversity: The study of Universal Grammar helps linguists understand the core aspects of human languages and how they are structured Significance of Understanding Universal Grammar Principles Understanding the principles of Universal Grammar can help us appreciate the remarkable human ability to learn and communicate through different languages with ease and precision. Some key benefits of understanding Universal Grammar principles include: Page 14  Created by Turbolearn AI Insights into language acquisition Support for language education Application in language assessment Study of language diversity Informing computational linguistics Criticisms and Drawbacks of Universal Grammar Principles Despite its many contributions to linguistics, the theory of Universal Grammar has faced a number of criticisms and drawbacks, including: The nature of innate linguistic knowledge: One primary concern among critics is the question of whether linguistic knowledge is truly innate or whether it is learned over time through exposure to language input.## Criticisms of Universal Grammar The poverty of the stimulus argument, which suggests that children acquire language based on innate principles and not just linguistic input, has been criticized for its lack of empirical evidence. Critics argue that the role of input could be more significant in language acquisition than Chomsky initially proposed. Some of the key criticisms of Universal Grammar include: Insufficient explanation for language change and development Predictive limitations: the Universal Grammar theory has limited predictive power in terms of how languages should look or behave Alternative approaches to language acquisition: several competing theories of language acquisition, such as usage-based models and connectionism, offer alternative explanations for language development Transformational Generative Grammar Transformational Generative Grammar is a syntactic theory developed by Chomsky. The main function of this theory is to represent structural descriptions using formal and discrete rules. A grammar is considered generative if it is sufficiently explicit to determine how sentences of the language are in fact characterized by grammar. The key principles of Transformational Generative Grammar include: Page 15  Created by Turbolearn AI The autonomy of syntax: syntax is a self-contained system that does not require any other disciplines, such as semantics, for the identification and characterization of syntactic categories and structures The centrality of syntax: syntax is the central component of language, and other components, such as semantics and phonology, are secondary Components of Transformational Generative Grammar The components of Transformational Generative Grammar include: Component Description Phrase Structure Rewrite rules that operate on an initial string to produce a Rules terminal string Transformational Rules that operate on the terminal strings and their underlying Rules structures to produce sentences Morphophonemic Rules that are applied to both kernel and derived sentences to Rules produce their phonemic representation Syntactic Structures In Syntactic Structures, Chomsky proposes that grammar comprises three levels of analysis: phrase structure rules, transformational rules, and morphophonemic rules. The phrase structure rules can be further subdivided into: Branching rules: introduce single category symbols like NP and VP Lexical rules: insert lexical items in the terminal string in place of category symbols The Standard Theory The Standard Theory, developed by Chomsky in 1965, regards syntax as the central component of language. The components of the Standard Theory include: Page 16  Created by Turbolearn AI Component Description Subdivided into a base grammatical component and a Syntactic Component transformational component Semantic Component Interprets the meaning of the deep structure Phonological Assigns a phonetic representation to the surface structure Component Grammatical Relations In Transformational Generative Grammar, grammatical relations are identified in terms of dominance. The subject refers to the NP that is immediately dominated by S The direct object specifies the NP that is directly dominated by V However, this characterization of grammatical relations has been criticized for its lack of universality, as languages differ considerably in their word order and case marking. For example, in Arabic, the word order is VSO, and the direct object is not directly dominated by V. This challenges the assumption that grammatical relations can be characterized in terms of purely syntactic accounts. Word Case Language Order Marking Inflected for Arabic VSO case Not English SVO inflected for case Inflected for German SVO case Inflected for Russian SVO case The Government and Binding theory, proposed by Chomsky in 1981, is a variant of generative grammar. This theory deals with grammatical relations and their correlation with semantic roles. Page 17  Created by Turbolearn AI Key Concepts Government: an abstract syntactic relationship between a governor and the element it governs Semantic roles: also known as theta roles, assigned to arguments in the argument structure Theta criterion: every NP must be assigned a theta role A theta role is a semantic role assigned to an argument in a sentence, such as agent or patient. Syntactic Structure The theory proposes that the subject is governed by the element inflection, which includes agreement with the subject in the present tense. Example Sentences Kate likes Sam: the verb likes governs its object NP Sam The postman gave a letter to Sam: the preposition to governs its NP Sam He plays tennis: the verb plays agrees with the subject he in the present tense Theta Roles and Movement Theta roles are assigned to arguments in the argument structure, and each theta role is determined by the lexical properties of the predicate with which arguments occur. Sentence Theta Role The dog bit the boy agent dog, patient boy The bubbles rise to the surface theme bubbles X-Bar Theory The X-bar theory proposes that phrases have a similar structure across different categories. Page 18  Created by Turbolearn AI Rewrite Rules The following rules determine the basic structure of phrases and sentences: 1. Complement rule: X' → X YP 2. Specifier rule: XP → YP X' 3. Adjunction rule: Xn → Xn, Y/YP Phrase Structure The head of a phrase determines its category, and the complement and specifier are optional elements that follow or precede the head. Phrase Head Complement Specifier VP V PP DP NP N PP DP PP P DP - Projection The head of a phrase projects its categorial status to the X' and ultimately to the XP. Projection refers to the process by which the head of a phrase determines the category of the phrase. Example The phrase the children fall over has the following structure: VP → DP V' → DP V PP The head V projects its categorial status to the X' V' and ultimately to the XP VP. Endocentricity The endocentricity of phrases means that a phrase of one category will always have a head of the same category. Page 19  Created by Turbolearn AI Phrase Head Category VP V V NP N N PP P P Note that this theory proposes that phrases are endocentric, meaning that the head of a phrase determines its category.## Introduction to X-Bar Theory X-Bar theory is a linguistic theory that proposes that all phrases have a head, which determines the categorial nature of the phrase. The theory consists of three rules that determine the structure of phrases. Endocentric and Exocentric Phrases A phrase can be either endocentric or exocentric. An endocentric phrase is a phrase that gets its properties from an element that it contains, and this element can function by itself as the whole phrase. An exocentric phrase, on the other hand, contains no element that can have the same function as the whole phrase, and appears to have properties that are independent from the elements it contains. Examples of endocentric phrases include: threeblindmice , where the element "mice" can function by itself as the whole phrase mice , which is a phrase that can function by itself Examples of exocentric phrases include: inthepark , where neither "in" nor "the park" can function by itself as the whole phrase wesawhimin , which is ungrammatical because "in" cannot function by itself as the whole phrase Page 20  Created by Turbolearn AI The X-Bar Rules The X-Bar rules propose that all phrases have a head, which determines the categorial nature of the phrase. The rules are as follows: Rule Description XP → X' YP A phrase XP consists of a head X ′ and a complement Y P X' → X YP A head X ′ consists of a word X and a complement Y P X' → X A head X ′ can also consist of just a word X Heads and Complements A head is a word position that determines the categorial nature of a phrase. The complement of a phrase is the element that accompanies the head. Phrase Head Complement thedog the dog eatthepie eat the pie Projection of Categorial Features Categorial features are projected from the lexical element that occupies the head position. The lexical element brings its categorial features with it, and these features are projected to the head position, and then to the X' and finally to the XP. For example, if we insert the verb "fall" into the head position, its categorial features [+V , −N, −F ] will be projected to the head position, and then to the X' and finally to the XP. Imperatives and Unpronounced Subjects Imperatives, such as "get out!", appear to lack a subject. However, it is proposed that imperatives have an unpronounced subject, which is present at the grammatical level but not pronounced. Page 21  Created by Turbolearn AI The presence of an unpronounced subject is supported by the behavior of reflexive pronouns, such as "yourself". The reflexive pronoun must have a grammatical antecedent, which is the unpronounced subject. Clauses and X-Bar Theory Clauses, such as thaticecreamproductionhasagainslumped , appear to be exocentric constructions, lacking a head. However, it is proposed that clauses do have heads, although the head is neither the subject nor the VP. This proposal challenges the traditional view that clauses are exocentric constructions, and instead suggests that X-Bar theory is a completely general theory that applies to all constructions of the language.## Complements The complement position in a phrase structure is expressed by the general phrase symbol YP, indicating that only a phrasal element can occupy this position. However, the category of the phrase is not specified, and it is determined by the subcategorisation frame of the lexical element. The subcategorisation frame of a lexical element tells us what kind of complement it can have. For example, the verb fall has a subcategorisation frame that specifies its complement as prepositional. This means that only a prepositional phrase P P can occupy the complement position of the verb fall. Specifiers Specifiers are a little more complex than complements and tend to be occupied by certain arguments of a predicate or by elements with a certain specified property that relates to the head. The following table summarizes the key differences between complements and specifiers: Page 22  Created by Turbolearn AI Complements Specifiers Category Restricted by the head Uniform category (usually DP) Restrictions Both semantic and categorial Only semantic Verb complements (e.g., PP with Subject arguments (e.g., DP with Examples fall) arrived) Some key points about specifiers include: They tend to be subjects, although this statement needs qualification They are usually DPs, which means they are not restricted differently by different heads in terms of their category They are assigned a θ-role by the verb, which means they must be semantically compatible with the θ-role they bear Adjuncts Adjuncts are defined by the rule Xn → Xn, Y/YP, which states that an Xn (an X with any number of bars) can be made up of two elements: an adjunct and another Xn. The following are key points about adjuncts: They can be either a word Y or a phrase Y P They can precede or follow the head, depending on other conditions The adjunction rule is recursive, meaning that any number of adjuncts can be added to a structure For example, an adjectival phrase can be used to modify a noun, as in a smart student. In this case, the adjective is an adjunct of the noun, and it is attached to the N' (the noun phrase without the specifier). Some examples of adjuncts include: Adjectival phrases (e.g., smart in a smart student) Adverbial phrases (e.g., quickly in she spoke quickly) Prepositional phrases (e.g., in the garden in Garry is in the garden) Page 23