Features of Spoken Language OCR Past Paper PDF

Term 2: Unit 1 Features of spoken language Features of spoken language You have learned that speech can be represented in written form in a variety of text types such as novels and short stories. However, the reproduction of the language of unscripted speech follows a different set of conventio...

Term 2: Unit 1 Features of spoken language Features of spoken language You have learned that speech can be represented in written form in a variety of text types such as novels and short stories. However, the reproduction of the language of unscripted speech follows a different set of conventions which you will need to understand and use in your A Level studies. Conversation is something we do, so naturally, it is easy to be descriptive rather than analytical when answering questions about spoken language. Features of spoken language Here are some points to remember to help you avoid this: 1. Look at (and learn!) the features of conversation so that they become familiar to you. 2. When answering questions about spoken language, read each piece of written speed to understand its purpose then identify the features which will help you to support your ideas. 3. Explain the effects of the features and give an illustrated example. Features of spoken language Whatever your native language(s), you are already an expert in the skill of speech. You may hesitate on occasions while you think of what to say, but most of the time when you engage conversation, especially with your friends, you are fluent. You will rarely have to stop to think about what you are going to say and how you are going to say it. Although we may have distinctive patterns of speech, as will be explained in the final section Language and the self, we all conform to certain features of unscripted speech. Discourse is not governed by the same rules as writing. Our discourse is in utterances and not sentences, and these utterances are not transcribed in the same way as written language. Features of spoken language Unlike the majority of what we write, which can be redrafted and polished to achieve the desired effect, most speech is spontaneous. We need strategies to make it flow as smoothly possible, though there are times when inevitably we say the wrong thing! Public speaking, such as speeches, sermons, lectures, TV, and other spoken commentaries as well as film/play scripts, share common features with written language as they are planned and organised before their delivery. Texts, tweets and other forms of digital communication blur the boundaries between speech and writing. Activities 1 and 2 will help you to become aware of the physical features of your voice in Speech. Key concept Diversity There is a diversity in the conventions of spoken and written English. Compare a piece of written text with its spoken equivalent, such as a review of a restaurant or film, directions for travel, or an opinion of a holiday location. What differences exist between the written and spoken version in terms of lexis syntax and organisation of material? Key terms discourse: any spoken or written language that is longer than a sentence (in this section, it applies primarily to spoken language) utterance: a section of spoken language which is often preceded by silence and followed by silence or a change of speaker. This term is commonly used as an alternative to sentence in conversation analysis, as it is difficult to apply the traditional characteristics of a written sentence to spoken language. The structure of unscripted conversation Conversations take place between two or more participants. Much unscripted conversation follows recognisable conventions which we develop through early life. By now you have already become a conversational expert! The structure of unscripted conversation Transcribing unscripted conversation Transcripts are records of speech. However, they don't just record what was said but also how it was delivered. The delivery is represented by specific conventions, which are shown in the following table. Convention What it shows (1) pause in seconds (.) micropause (for breath) underlined stressed sound/syllable(s) // speech overlap [italics] paralinguistic features UPPER CASE words spoken with increased volume upward intonation downward intonation /wiv/ phonemic representation of speech sounds wordo o words spoken with decreased volume These conventions are used to capture and represent spoken language on the page as accurately as possible. The standardised conventions allow for accurate representation from any transcript and ensures reliable data for analysis. How to transcribe speech A transcription in linguistics is an exact record of spoken language. Writing a transcription is a painstaking process as it needs to be accurate in both the content and style of recording. Listen to the recording at least three times before beginning to transcribe. Each section of the conversation needs to be listened to several times. Informal discourse often has a lot of overlap of different speakers, which can be difficult to record at first. You should not follow the conventions of literary speech. For example, you should not include quotation marks, and new lines should not start with a capital letter. How to transcribe speech The speakers' names must be written in capital letters on the left hand side. Use a colon to separate the name from their utterance. Use conventional spelling and not phonetic spelling for representing speech. Where words are unclear it is convention to show this using (xxxxxx). When two speakers start talking at the same time, indicate this overlapping utterance with //. Some transcriptions also use brackets to show that two or more speakers are speaking at the same time. Only words and phrases showing a distinct change in tone need to be marked with the intonation symbols. You will learn more about transcribing speech in Unit 3. Discourse features The following features of discourse are listed separately, but when we speak we often use several of these features at the same time. It is important to look at conversations in the context of who is talking and why, rather than simply identifying these individual features as this helps to interpret the dynamics of the conversation. Opening greetings: Conversation openings usually have a standard form to help ease the participants into the conversations. Greetings such as ‘g'day', 'howdy', 'howzit, ‘hiya', 'hello', 'good morning', 'nice day', 'how are you?' establish feelings of mutual ease These standard greetings may be accompanied by body language and gestures, such a handshakes or kissing and hugging. Participants who are strangers will usually introduce themselves with their full name. Discourse features Turn-taking: Conversation is usually cooperative with participants taking turns, but, quite frequently, speakers overlap. This has to be done with sensitivity as, in many cultures, interrupting is considered rude. Conversationalists have to make instant, fine judgements about when to start their turn - this may be done hundreds of times a day in every conversation. When a conversation is not cooperative, for example in an argument participants adopt very different strategies, often with unpleasant outcomes! Adjacency pairs: 'Statement' and 'response' form the basis of conversation. These often consist of a question/exclamation/declaration from Participant A followed by a response from Participant B and any others. The responses can be of any length and can extend to three-part exchanges where the first speaker responds and so the conversation continues. For example: Teacher: What is the capital of New Zealand? Pupil: Auckland (.) Miss Teacher: No (.) try again (1) think hard Pupil: Wellington (.) Miss Teacher: Good (.) that's right Discourse features Holding the conversational floor: In discourse, the person speaking is said to be holding the conversational floor. When someone is about to finish their turn we use a variety of strategies to determine who will take over, and when they will do so. For example, we can: - name them (e.g. Hannah was there, she knows about it') - complete what we are saying (e.g....and so I got thoroughly soaked') - hesitate – it only takes a fractionally longer pause than usual for someone to fill the silence (In fact, silences can denote some tension in discourse) - use sound and body language - our voice may start to fall and we may look more closely at those who are about to take their conversational turn. In some varieties of English, such as New Zealand and Australian English, a rising tone indicates that the speaker is concluding their turn. This feature is spreading throughout the English speaking world and is now recognised officially as high-rising terminal. Discourse features Clashing: When two people start to speak at the same time the clash is acknowledged - one participant must stop while the other continues. As in other elements of conversation, status and context are important here. ‘Managing' a conversation is related to the context and to the relative status of the speakers. Repairing: During the conversation, participants are constantly monitoring themselves and those to whom they are speaking. A speaker may repair what they say by correcting themselves or using phrases to acknowledge their mistake. For example: 'I mean', 'I should have said', 'no', 'that's wrong', or 'I wanted to say'. In this way there is instant updating of information and self-correction in conversation. Sometimes another participant will correct the speaker's mistake for them. For example, 'Do you mean Tuesday? You said “Thursday” earlier?. Discourse features Topic shift: Conversation is dynamic and spontaneous. We talk about all sorts of things, people and ideas and these topics change frequently. Management of topic shift is most commonly achieved with expressions such as 'Oh, by the way...', or which reminds me...? Conversation endings: Closing a conversation also has formulaic utterances with standard phrases, such as 'see you later', 'bye', and 'nice to see you', or we may make plans to be in contact again with phrases such as ‘Come round sometime’ or ‘See you next week', which may signal a vague or more specific intention. As with other forms of conversation, body language reinforces the discourse: we may check the time, start to pack away belongings, stand up or turn away. Often, both speakers will seem to synchronise this, especially if they know each other well. Key terms body language: communication which uses all forms of nonverbal gestures to put across meaning turn-taking: in conversation, people usually wait their turn to speak. Some may interrupt, out of eagerness or rudeness, but the norm is for one speaker to yield the floor by prolonging a pause or glancing at the elected next speaker who then takes their turn. adjacency pair: dialogue that follows a set pattern (e.g. when speakers greet each other) of an utterance from one speaker and a response from the other Key terms conversational floor: speaking until you have finished what you wish to say, or until someone interrupts you status: the perceived position of a person's authority and influence in relation to those around them topic shift: the point at which speakers move from one topic to another Prosodic and paralinguistic features As an accomplished conversationalist you will know that what you say is only half the story: it is the way that you say it which is often key to the effectiveness of your communication with others. Paralinguistic features are the unspoken elements of communication such as body language, gestures and facial expressions. Prosodic features comprise intonation, stress, tone and speed involved in spoken language. Paralinguistic and prosodic features add to the meaning of the total discourse, even if speakers are not consciously aware of them. When one or more of these features is absent, as in a phone conversation, it can be difficult to interpret the speaker's intentions. The prosodic features are mentioned in the following slides: Prosodic and paralinguistic features Prosodic features Tone relates to the emotion associated with the utterance - you can generally tell whether someone is irritated, angry, happy, sad, excited or bored by the expression they use when speaking. Pitch is a musical term and, in language, it means whether the voice is high or low. It is closely associated with the sounds we make and the emotion we are feeling. For instance, we squeal excitedly in a high pitch and younger children also have high-pitched voice characteristically, when we speak to babies we raise the pitch of our voices. Prosodic and paralinguistic features Prosodic features Volume is the level of voice production, whether loud or soft. Everyone has their own characteristic volume level when they speak, and volume may change according to circumstances. Speed relates to the pace at which someone speaks and again this is related to the circumstances of the social interaction. When excited or frightened, we may speak faster. Conversely, when we are uncertain, or wish to be very careful about what we are saying, we tend to speak more slowly. The importance of paralinguistics Paralinguistic features are critically important in any conversation, both for the speaker putting across their points and for the listener interpreting what is being said. The link between the two is assisted by feedback - signals that the listener gives to show they are following the conversation. Feedback can be expressed by any of the features shown in the diagram on the next slide:... THINK LIKE... A HOLLYWOOD OR BOLLYWOOD SCREENPLAY WRITER You are writing a screenplay for a family film for one of the major film studios. The director wants the scripts to be as natural, but also as professionally filmed, as possible. Write a script for one short scene from the film, in which the household members are discussing a forthcoming family celebration. You may like to view online clips for family films. Any made in your own country would be particularly useful. Key term feedback: a group of verbal and non-verbal signals given by the listener to show they are following the conversation