Stuvia Summary 2.8 Performance At Work Lecture Notes PDF

Summary 2.8 Performance At Work FULL CLASS NOTES & Lecture notes (FSWP2-080-A) written by zia818 The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Revision Notes & Study Guides At Stuvia, you will f...

Summary 2.8 Performance At Work FULL CLASS NOTES & Lecture notes (FSWP2-080-A) written by zia818 The Marketplace to Buy and Sell your Revision Notes & Study Guides At Stuvia, you will find the best revision notes & other study material. Search for your school, uni or examination board and find the study material you need. www.stuvia.com Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 1 Table of Contents 1. The best and the rest (Performance)....................................................................................... 2 2. Who would you hire? (Selection).......................................................................................... 19 3. Beyond intelligence (Personality)......................................................................................... 33 4. Try something new (Creativity)............................................................................................. 43 5. Money, money, money (Remuneration)............................................................................... 56 6. I feel pretty, oh so pretty (Appearance on Salary)................................................................. 68 7. Thinking about your career (Career)..................................................................................... 82 8. Lecture notes....................................................................................................................... 97 Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 2 2.8C Performance at work Problem 1 – Performance Performance Concepts and Performance Theory (Sonnentag and Frese) Relevance of Individual Performance Company → High individual performance is relevant for the company to meet their goals Individual → High individual performance is a source of satisfaction, mastery, pride & financial benefits Is very often a variable in organizational research (usually as a dependent variable) Definition of Performance Performance as o Action aspect (behavioural) → what an individual does in the work situation e.g. assembles an engine or teaches kids math o Outcome aspect of a performance → consequence or result of the individual’s behavior, which does not only depend on the individual’s behavior e.g. teaching math perfectly might not increase children’s scores if they have intellectual deficits Performance as a Multi-dimensional Concept Task performance: individual’s proficiency which contribute to organization’s ‘technical core’ o Indirect contribution – managers or staff o Direct contribution – production worker Contextual performance: do not contribute to the technical core but support the organizational, social, and psychological environment to pursue the organizations’ goals o E.g. helping co-workers, being reliable, suggesting how to improve work procedures Differentiation: TASK PERFORMANCE CONTEXTUAL PERFORMANCE ACTIVITIES Vary between jobs Relatively similar across jobs RELATED TO Ability Personality and motivation ROLES In-role behaviour Extra-role behaviour A) Task Performance Multi-dimensional 5 factors referring to task performance 1. Job-specific task proficiency 2. Non-job-specific task proficiency 3. Written and oral communication proficiency 4. Supervision—in the case of a supervisory or leadership position Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 3 5. Management/administration a. Planning and organizing b. Guiding directing, and motivating subordinates + feedback c. Training, coaching, and developing subordinates d. Communicating effectively and keeping others informed B) Contextual Performance 2 types of contextual performance 1. Stabilizing → smooth functioning of the organization a. Organizational citizenship behavior with its 5 components altruism, conscientiousness, civic virtue, courtesy, and sportsmanship 2. Proactive behaviors → aim at changing and improving work procedures and organizational processes a. Organizational spontaneity b. Prosocial organizational behavior c. Taking charge C) RELATIONSHIP between Task and Contextual Performance Conceptually and empirically distinct Task performance and contextual performance factors (e.g. job dedication and interpersonal facilitation) contribute uniquely to overall performance in managerial jobs Each is predicted by different variables o Abilities and skill → task performance o Personality related factors → contextual performance ▪ Ability and motivational factors → Personal initiative (aspect of contextual perf.) Performance as a Dynamic Concept Individual performance varies over time o Learning process and other long-term changes ▪ Learning process initially increases and then plateaus ▪ Early skill acquisition – controlled processing, declarative knowledge and optimal allocation of attentional resources = Transition stage ▪ Later skill acquisition – automatic processing, procedural knowledge, psychomotor abilities = Maintenance stage o Temporary changes → psycho-physiological state ▪ Caused by: long working hours, disturbances of the circadian rhythm, or exposure to stress ▪ May result in: fatigue or decrease in activity, however not necessarily performance decrease (may switch to diff. strategies) Perspectives on Performance These are not mutually exclusive, but encompass a different angle 1. Individual differences → individual characteristics (e.g., general mental ability, personality) as sources for variation in performance Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 4 2. Situational perspective → which focuses on situational aspects as facilitators and impediments for performance 3. Performance regulation perspective → describes the performance process Individual Differences Perspective Which individuals perform best? Hunter →bidirectional relationship between job knowledge and ability Campbell (1990) general model → performance components as a function of three determinants: 1. Declarative knowledge (facts, principles, goals and self), 2. Procedural knowledge and skills (cognitive and psychomotor skills, physical skill, self-management skill, and interpersonal skill) 3. Motivation (choice to perform, level of effort, and persistence of effort) Campbell neglects situational variables as predictors of performance Meta-analytic evidence → strong relationship between cognitive ability and job performance Meta-analyses → general relationships between personality factors and job performance are relatively small; the strongest relationships emerged for neuroticism/emotional stability and conscientiousness Individual differences in motivation may be caused by differences in motivational traits and differences in motivational skills Self-efficacy → related both to task and contextual performance o Mainly important in the learning process Professional experience shows a positive, although small relationship with job performance Emotional control Motivational control Implications on personnel selection → organizations need to select individuals on the basis of their abilities, experiences, and personality + training programs Situational Perspective In which situations do individuals perform best? Workplace factors A. Enhance and facilitate performance B. Impede performance Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 5 A. Enhancing performance Job characteristics model (Hackman and Oldham) o Small, but positive relationship between job characteristics and job performance Sociotechnical systems theory (Trist & Bamforth, 1951) o work systems as composed of social and technical subsystems and suggests that performance improvement can only follow from the joint optimization of both subsystems o More concerned with group performance (than individual) B. Impeding performance Within role theory (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, & Rosenthal, 1964) → role ambiguity and role conflict are conceptualized as stressors that impede performance o Empirical support is weak Situational constraints → lack of necessary information, problems with machines and supplies as well as stressors within the work environment o Additional regulation capacity is needed to resolve a problem (e.g. broken down machine which impedes performance), this leaves less capacity for the task C. Overall The lack of positive features in the work situation such as control at work threatens performance more than the presence of some stressors Individual performance can be improved by job design interventions (giving more control over the process) Performance Regulation Perspective How does the performance process look like? What is happening when someone is ‘performing’ Most of these approaches focus on regulatory forces within the individual Investigates differences between high and moderate performers while working on a task o High performers differ from moderate performers in the way they approach their tasks and how they arrive at solutions o High performers focus more on long-range goals and show more planning in complex and ill-structured tasks, but not in well-structured tasks Action theory approach → describes the performance process— as any other action—from both a process and a structural point of view o Process point of view focuses on the sequential aspects of an action → goal development, information search, planning, execution of the action and its monitoring and feedback processing o Structural point of view refers to its hierarchical organization → high goals, good mental health, detailed planning, and good feedback processes Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 6 Goal setting theory → assumes that goals affect performance via four mediating mechanisms: effort, persistence, direction, and task strategies o One of the most powerful work-related intervention programs o Improvement of the action process itself improves performance Feedback → enhances performance (best coupled with goal setting) Reinforcement theory → financial interventions, non-financial interventions such as performance feedback, social rewards such as attention and recognition, or a combination of all these types of reinforcements o Positive effect on task performance Relations Among the Various Perspectives Usually, research combines the different perspectives Individual differences + situational perspective → motivated behavior Helpful to develop a model which combines the individual differences and situational perspective with the performance regulation perspective Performance in a Changing World of Work Continuous Learning Due to fast technological advancement → learning and competence development become increasingly important New concept of ‘adaptive performance’ as a new performance concept in which ‘learning’ constitutes a major performance dimension In the past learning seen more as a prerequisite of performance Individuals will go back and forth between the skill acquisition and the maintenance phase Proactivity Becoming increasingly important Performing well is no longer sufficient Personal initiative has been shown to be related to company performance, particularly in entrepreneurial businesses Proactivity might become an important predictor of task performance Working in Teams Organizations become more interested in team performance than in individual performance Which individual difference variables predict individual performance within a teamwork setting? o task-related skills and knowledge are not sufficient o interpersonal and self-management skills and knowledge are regarded to be essential Which aspects of individual performance are relevant for team performance? o individual task performance is necessary for high team performance o helping was positively related to both quantity and quality aspects of group performance in a production setting How does individual performance translate into team performance? o It is not just sum of individual performances o There is a factor of the individuals being dependent on each other Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 7 Globalization Production and services are produced for a global market, and they compete worldwide Workforces become increasingly global → culturally diverse Globally operating companies are faced with great challenges when trying to implement an identical performance appraisal system worldwide → needs to be tailored to each culture Technology Individual work behavior, thus performance, is very closely linked to the use of technology- based systems It becomes very difficult to separate the technology’s and the individual’s contribution to individual performance A Theory of Individual Differences in Task and Contextual Performance (Motowidlo, Borman and Schmit - 1997) Aim: describes a theory of job performance that assumes that job performance is behavioral, episodic, evaluative, and multidimensional Job performance: aggregated value to the organization of the discrete behavioral episodes that an individual performs over a standard interval of time Introduction Selection research has paid more attention to predictors of performance than it has to the performance construct itself This article incorporates both themes o Dimensional structure of the performance domain o Causal pattern of relations between antecedents of job performance and its various dimensional components. Basic Assumptions about Job Performance Job performance is behavioral, episodic, evaluative, and multidimensional Performance is a Behavioral Construct Behavior, performance, and results are not the same things o Behavior – what people do while at work o Performance – behavior with an evaluative component (positive/negative/effective) o Results – states or conditions of people or things that are changed by performance and consequently either contribute to or detract from organizational goal accomplishment Model should focus on behavior, not results because o States or conditions of things or people that are changed by performance are also affected by other extraneous factors not under the individual performer's control o Behavioral focus is necessary to develop a psychological understanding of selection processes Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 8 Performance Behavior Is Episodic Episodes – occasions when people do something that does make a difference in relation to organizational goals It is not a stream of 8 hours at work, but individual occasions Performance Behavior Episodes Are Evaluative Only behavioral episodes that make a difference to organizational goal accomplishment are part of the performance domain Behavioral episodes in the performance domain have varying contribution values for the organization that range from slightly to extremely positive It is possible to identify behavioral episodes that are regarded as more or less organizationally desirable even if the organizational goals aren’t explicitly stated The Performance Domain Is Behaviorally Multidimensional The aggregated contribution value of an individual's behavioral episodes over a standard interval of time represents the net worth of that individual's behavior to the organization during that time interval = overall job performance Dilemma of aggregating several distinct dimensions Solution → organize the performance domain into behaviorally homogeneous categories and aggregate contribution values of behavioral episodes separately in each category Task Performance and Contextual Performance Task performance - a direct relation to the organization's technical core, either by executing its technical processes or by maintaining and servicing its technical requirements o Activities that transform raw materials into the goods and services that are the organization's products (operating a production machine) o Activities that service and maintain the technical core by replenishing its supply of raw materials (distributing finished products) Contextual performance - does not contribute through the organization's core technical processes but it does maintain the broader organizational, social, and psychological environment in which the technical core must function o Helping and cooperating with others o Following organizational rules and procedures even when personally inconvenient o Volunteering to carry out task activities that are not formally part of the job Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 9 Individual Differences in Task and Contextual Performance Cognitive → task performance Personality → contextual performance Task knowledge is knowledge of facts and principles related to functions of the organization's technical core Contextual knowledge is knowledge of facts, principles, and procedures for effective action in situations that call for helping and cooperating with others Task skill is skill in using technical information, performing technical procedures, handling information, making judgments, solving problems, and making decisions related to core technical functions Contextual skill is skill in carrying out actions known to be effective for handling situations that call for helping and coordinating with others Task work habits are patterns of responses to task situations that either facilitate or interfere with the performance of task behaviors Contextual work habits are patterns of responses that either facilitate or interfere with effective performance in contextual work situations Assessing Performance – Appraisal (An individual psychological perspective) (Clive Fletcher) Performance Appraisal (PA) → processes whereby an individual’s work performance is assessed, usually by that person’s line manager, and discussed with a view to solving problems, improving performance, and developing the individual appraised - New aspects of appraisal, such as multi-source feedback (so-called 360-degree feedback) have become popular - In the 1950s, personality-based appraisal systems were quite common → learning and motivating mechanism - In the 1960s shifted to a greater emphasis on goal setting and the assessment of performance- related abilities (and, much more recently, competencies) rather than personality - Later influenced by equal opportunities legislation Research on Performance Appraisal Seeking to understand the cognitive processes underlying the assessments made by managers of their staff Research mostly from USA perhaps because of the impact of Equal Opportunities legislation there Organizational justice theory o Distributive Justice - perceived fairness of assessment and reward Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 10 o Procedural Justice - perceived fairness of the process whereby those assessment and reward decisions are arrived at (having a “voice” → positive perception) There is little or no evidence to suggest that appraisal ratings typically found in organizations have significantly improved in terms of their “accuracy” or other psychometric properties o Might be due to underlying assumptions → appraisers as faulty but motivationally neutral elements of the appraisal process and has concentrated on improving these faults with improved rating scale formats and training Limitations of PA research o Broad-brush approach o Instrumental vs Value-expressive participation ▪ Instrumental: participation for the purpose of influencing a result ▪ Value-expressive: for the sake of having, one’s voice heard ▪ latter had a stronger relationship with reaction criteria than did the former o Procedural justice perceptions are themselves subject to the influence of deeper psychological reactions (perceived justice changes when a rejection decision is communicated) o Appraisal interview (AI) is neglected by research ▪ AI is the point of delivery of PA, which makes it “the Achilles’ heel of the entire process” ▪ Not much research conducted on how to conduct AI effectively ▪ Difficulty to study this Psychological Variables Impacting on Appraisal Formal purposes of appraisal vary to some extent from one organization to another, and across time When in recession → developmental aspects of appraisal are de-emphasized, and the focus is very strongly on performance improvement and achieving short-term results One of the most frequent criticisms of PA generally is that it has too many objectives, and not all of them are very consistent with each other The Appraiser The attitude of managers towards carrying out PA seems to be ambivalent at best It is frequently observed that they avoid carrying out appraisals (less than 67%) Appraiser’s goals are: o Projecting a favorable image of the work unit they lead so as to reflect well on them personally o Procuring access to organizational resources and rewards o Presenting themselves as a caring boss o Avoiding conflict with subordinates and the negative consequences of that o Avoiding disapproval from peers Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 11 Research identified the following reasons why managers inflated their ratings of subordinates: o Believing that accurate ratings would have a damaging effect on subordinate motivation and performance o Desire to improve the subordinate’s chances of getting a pay rise o A wish to avoid others outside the department seeing evidence of internal problems and conflicts o Preventing a permanent written record of poor performance coming into being which might have longer-term implications for the subordinate o Need to protect subordinates whose performance had suffered from the effects of personal problems o Wanting to reward subordinates who had put in a lot of effort even if the result was not so good o Avoiding confrontation and potential conflict with “difficult” subordinates o Aiming to promote out of the department subordinates who were disliked or problem performers Though less frequently reported, some reasons for deliberately manipulating performance assessments in a downward direction: o Scaring people into performing better o Punishing difficult or non-compliant subordinates o Encouraging unwanted subordinates to leave o Minimizing the merit pay award(s) o Complying with organizational restrictions on the number of higher ratings given The higher an individual rose in an organization, the more political the appraisal process becomes Avoidance of conflict – wanting to maintain a positive relationship with the subordinate Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 12 Willingness to convey assessments, and the way they do it are likely to be determined by various factors o Confidence in their own position → Greater confidence and sense of security in one’s own position should facilitate greater openness and honesty with others, but a lack of security may increase the temptation to indulge in manipulative strategies o Relationship with the subordinate o Attributional style → susceptible to such factors as gender bias in appraisers o And their personality → Machiavellianism, emotional intelligence, including, empathy, self-awareness, sensitivity to others, integrity, and emotional resilience The Appraisee Self-disclosure makes people more vulnerable Criticism in the AI was threatening to the appraisee and led to a poorer reaction, especially if the individual had low occupational self-esteem Contingency approach – not everyone reacts the same way → tailored to the circumstances and make-up of the employee Several personality and other attributes influence an individual’s reactions to being appraised, including motivation, self-awareness and self-esteem, locus of control and attributional style, and feedback attitudes Motivation Subordinate may enter the appraisal process with a wide and mixed agenda: o Appraisee may wish to know how he/she is viewed by the manager, without wanting to accept it → may be protective and designed to maintain self-esteem o May wish to present a counter point of view and seek to persuade the appraiser to accept his/her self-evaluation (to either maintain present levels of reward or to enhance them) → impression management exercise o May wish to use to the appraisal as a springboard to development, getting his/her manager to support and arrange specific training and development steps o The appraisee may wish to solve job problems and to improve performance as a result o It may be important to use the AI as a vehicle for “upward management”, trying to persuade the appraiser to manage the appraisee in a different manner, or to modify the performance goals set o The AI can be an opportunity to express grievances against colleagues or to make the appraiser aware of personal issues and difficulties 7 elements of appraisee’s Need for Achievement or “N.Ach” o Work Ethic—motivation to achieve based on finding reinforcement in the performance itself; the desire to work hard o Acquisitiveness—motivation based on the reinforcing properties of financial reward o Dominance—the desire to lead or to be in a position of dominance o Pursuit of Excellence—motivation that finds reward in performing to the best of one’s ability o Competitiveness—enjoyment of competition with the aim of winning o Status Aspiration—motivation reinforced by climbing the social hierarchy o Mastery—reinforcement gained from success in the face of difficulty Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 13 A more recent stream of literature → Goal orientation - orientation towards developing or demonstrating one’s ability o Learning Goal Orientation (LGO) - developing competence by acquiring new skills and mastering new problems and tasks ▪ Positively related to feedback seeking o Performance Goal Orientation (PGO) - orientation to demonstrate and prove the adequacy of one’s competence by seeking favorable assessments and avoiding criticism ▪ Negatively related to feedback seeking o Goal orientation is related to self-efficacy Self-awareness, self-esteem, and self-efficacy An individual’s level of self-objectivity is likely to exert some effect on his/her reaction to PA o If an individual is able to stand back from his/her own feelings and needs, and assess his/her performance in an unbiased manner → task of the appraiser somewhat easier The extent to which self-assessments are congruent with assessments made by others has been termed ‘self-awareness’ o Higher on self-awareness tend to be higher performers o Self-awareness is also a component of emotional intelligence → the more self-aware an individual is, the more positive is his/her reaction likely to be in the PA situation o Not supported by research though Gender difference o Women may be more modest in their self-assessment and more congruent with others’ assessments of them →implies a greater likelihood of a positive appraisal response on their part Self-esteem → individuals with high self-esteem evaluated themselves more favorably than people with low self-esteem. Possibly because: o Self-consistency position → Individuals with low self-esteem will prefer less positive feedback (because it fits with their self-image) o The self-enhancement position → both high and low self-esteem individuals will want positive feedback, and that the latter will be especially motivated to seek it out Self-efficacy theory (Bandura 1977) → person’s belief in his capabilities to meet the demands of a given situation Locus of control and attributional style Correlates with many organizational variables highly relevant to the appraisal situation, including effort, performance, job satisfaction and compliance with authority Internal LoC → preference for participative bosses and respond more positively to incentive systems External LoC → affected by appraisal feedback Gender o Women have been consistently found to attribute success more externally than men, thereby taking less credit for their performance, and have lower self-esteem Feedback attitudes Feedback seeking is an individual difference variable in its own Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 14 Herold, Parsons, and Rensvold (1996) developed three domain-specific measures of individual differences in feedback tendencies: 1. Internal propensity: self-reliance, a lack of trust in other people’s evaluations, and valuing internal feedback 2. Internal ability: reflects the ability to self-assess, to know what is required by way of performance and the ability to judge one’s progress towards it—irrespective of preference for internal or externally generated feedback ▪ Strongly related to positive self-esteem (r =.4 to.5) and also to Need for Achievement and self-assurance 3. External propensity: preference for, and greater trust in, performance feedback from outside sources ▪ Not related to Need for Achievement and self-assurance ▪ Negatively correlated with tolerance for ambiguity Individuals scoring highly on a cognitive complexity measure made better use of feedback cues, and were less likely to inflate their self-evaluations Individuals higher in need for achievement and intelligence tend to provide more accurate self- evaluations Credibility of the source of the feedback is crucial to its acceptance (deficiencies in the rating instrument - inadequate observation of the individual’s performance by the supervisor, procedural justice concerns) Internal vs. external locus is a fundamental element in attributional style and is the cornerstone of the feedback attitudes Variables have a considerable potential to influence many core aspects of the AI: o Need for Achievment & self-efficacy o Self-esteem and goal orientation o Self-awareness o Internality–externality o N.Ach and internality–externality are likely to influence reward preferences The Relationship Between Appraiser and Appraisee Key factor in determining appraisal outcomes: Supervisor–subordinate relationship Greater openness in communication between manager and subordinate was associated with higher satisfaction with the appraisal, with the job and with the company Frequency with which the manager and subordinate discussed work outside the appraisal situation was related to appraisal outcomes (the more the better) Similarity between appraiser and appraisee—including gender match → seeing others as they see themselves allows one to better understand and predict their behavior, and this is generally a rewarding experience Trust and loyalty were likely to influence the extent to which important issues were discussed in appraisal Positive regard for subordinates → more lenient appraisal ratings, greater halo effects, reduced accuracy, less inclination to punish poor performance and better interpersonal relationships Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 15 Attributional theory: o Disliked individuals perform poorly, their behavior is “in-character” and hence attributed to factors internal to them o Liked subordinates perform below expectation, this is “out-of-character” and is attributed to external factors Conceptual and methodological problems o failure to take account of the duration of the relationship and the lack of fidelity to organizational appraisal systems Rewardingness - degree to which the appraisee meets or fulfils the boss’s expectations regarding his or her performance Improving Future Research and Practice in Performance Appraisal More studies outside of USA More research directed towards the psychological aspects of the handling of the appraisal interaction More PA research based on a contingency model is likely to be helpful (individual diff.) Organizational psychologists should try to understand, describe, and predict the appraisal interaction at an individual psychological level Sources of Performance Appraisal Information (Muchinsky 2003) Objective Production Data Index of how well an employee is performing (limited in frequency and value) E.g. machine operator → job performance measured by counting number of objects produced per week Intuitive appeal to measure job performance this way, it is not a complete measure Problems with Objective Production Data: o Assumption that different performance between people reflects true differences in performance and therefore “how well someone performs” ▪ However, variability may be due to factors beyond an individual’s control ▪ E.g. having a better machine, better territory, firefighters extinguish more fires because their area has more buildings… ▪ Form of criterion contamination - response measure (the criterion) is influenced by factors that are not related to the concept being measured o Objective production data rarely tells the true story ▪ E.g. Machine operator who produces more objects but also more defective ones, shouldn’t be described as “best” ▪ E.g. Salesperson takes more time finding a new customer than maintain the ones they have → but both aspects are important ▪ Criterion deficiency → they are deficient measures of the conceptual criteria that they seek to measure Relevance of Objective Production Data: o It is important for every business to have a good output Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 16 o The issue is degree to relevance o Tempting to give it great relevance as the data is easily accessible Personnel Data Absenteeism and accidents o Absences can be excused or unexcused o Accidents – only for a limited number of jobs (blue-collar jobs) To what extent do they reflect real differences in job performance? Can lead to discharge of personnel Rating Errors Halo error – evaluations based on the rater’s general feelings about an employee o Favorable attitude toward the employee → assesses employee as performing well in several dimensions even without having credible knowledge about all of performance dimensions o Generalizations, carry-over effect o 2 types of halo effect ▪ Invalid halo: A true rating error where one fails to differentiate an employee’s performance across different dimensions ▪ Valid halo: Giving uniformly consistent ratings to an employee when these ratings are in fact justified → truly performs well across all dimensions o Most serious and pervasive error Leniency errors: a disproportionately large number of ratees as performing well/poorly in contrast to their true level of performance o Positive leniency → evaluations higher than the true level (manifested in left skew) o Negative leniency → evaluations below the true level o The type of leniency is typically stable for a person o Most lenient raters were low on Conscientiousness and high in Agreeableness Central-tendency error: rater’s unwillingness to assign extreme high or low ratings o “Everyone is average” Judgmental Data 1. Graphic rating scales 2. Employee-comparison methods a. Rank order b. Paired comparison c. Forced distribution 3. Behavior checklists and scales a. Critical incidents b. Behaviorally anchored rating scales c. Behavior-observation scale EPM – electronic performance methods Graphic Rating Scales Most used Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 17 Individuals rated on number of traits or factors The rater judges “how much” of each factor an individual has 5- or 7-point scales Commonly rated dimensions: quantity of work, quality of work, practical judgement, job knowledge, cooperation, motivation Employee-Comparison Methods Individuals compared with one another Eliminated central-tendency and leniency errors → forced to differentiate (however, halo is possible) Variation → creates false impression of large differences when they are in fact small Types of employee-comparison methods o Rank order → high to low, somewhat arbitrary o Paired comparison → each employee compared with every other employee in the evaluated group (typically used on a single dimension and with less people) o Forced distribution →rater places employee somewhere on the normal distribution curve, most useful in a large sample (forced rater to create a normal distribution, not everyone can be on the highest end) Behavioral Checklists and Scales Behaviors are less vague than other factors Critical incidents → good/poor performance o Supervisors keep a tally of critical behaviors o Evaluated by the occurrence of behaviors (not quantity necessarily) o Supervisor can counsel on the bad and encourage the good behaviors Behaviorally anchored rating scales → combination of critical incidents and rating scales o Generation of a critical incidents list o Supervisors cluster the incidents into smaller sets of performance dimensions o Retranslation - critical incidents are scrambled, and another supervisor/knowledgeable person tries to create the clusters again to see a match in dimensions o Raters are asked how effectively the surviving behavioral incident matches the dimension. If the variability is high the item is discarded (high SD). Incidents with SD more than 1.5 discarded o Final form of the instrument → consists of successfully retranslated incidents and those that met SD criteria Advantages o High degrees of persons developing the scale → rejects false stereotypes o High face validity for both rater and ratee Disadvantages o Job specific o Expectations may deviate based on the context which is not accounted for in the scale Behavioral-observation Scale → also based on critical incidents o Rater observes the employee on frequency of critical incidents over a period (month) o Advantage of teaching employees desired behaviors Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 18 Rater Training Process in which appraisers are taught to make fewer halo, central-tendency, and leniency errors Frame-of-reference training → provides raters a common reference standard by which they evaluate performance o Vignettes of good average and bad performance o Calibrates the raters + calibrates accuracy, and reduces rating error Rater Motivation Organizationally induced pressure to evaluate more positively No rewards from organization for accurate appraisal High ratings guarantee promotions, salary increase or other rewards Ratings of employees is also a reflection of the rater’s job performance Avoiding stress and defensive reactions “Appraisal politics” Accurate ratings are most likely to occur when: - Good and poor performance is clearly defined - Distinguishing between workers in terms of level of performance is widely accepted - High degree in trust in the system - Low ratings do not automatically result in loss of rewards - Valued rewards are clearly linked to accuracy in performance appraisal Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 19 Problem 2 – Selection Schmidt & Hunter, 2004 - General Mental Ability in the World of Work: Occupational Attainment and Job Performance Type of article: unstructured review Theoretical background General mental ability (GMA) → C. Spearman (1904) GMA predicts both occupational level attained and performance within one’s chosen occupation and does so better than any other ability, trait, or disposition and better than job experience Disconfirming specific aptitude theory → weighted combinations of specific aptitudes tailored to individual jobs do not predict job performance better than GMA alone GMA is relatively stable over years GMA has a strong genetic basis (the correlation between genetics and GMA increases with age) GMA and Attainment of Occupational Level Cross-sectional studies People’s rankings/ratings of the occupational level or prestige of different occupations are very reliable → correlations between mean ratings across studies are in the.95 to.98 range regardless of the social class, occupation, age, or country of the raters These occupational level ratings correlate between.90 and.95 with average GMA scores of people in the occupations Individual level correlations are smaller (around.65) Military data → increase in mean GMA scores as occupational level increases Upper end of the GMA range is quite similar across all occupations, whereas the lower end increases with increasing occupational level Longitudinal studies Important for showing whether GMA predicts later occupational attainment Those with higher GMA scores in 1980 moved up the hierarchy, whereas those with lower GMA scores moved down in the hierarchy Job mobility was predicted by the congruence between individuals’ GMA scores (measured several years earlier) and the objectively measured complexity of their jobs o If their GMA exceeded the complexity level of their job, they were likely to move into a higher complexity job o If the complexity level of their job exceeded their GMA level, they were likely to move down into a less complex job GMA predicted later income even with unusually thorough control for socioeconomic status (SES) and other background variables Differences found even among siblings → earning more than $9,000 per year than his duller sibling (IQ 120 vs 80) Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 20 Childhood GMA scores predicted adult occupational level with a correlation of.51 and predicted adult income with a correlation of.53 Sub-conclusion: GMA predicts one’s ultimate attained job level, but it does not predict which occupation at that level one will enter (depends on interests) This relationship is relatively strong (.50 and higher) – unusually high for psychology GMA and Performance Within Occupations and Jobs Selection instrument most widely used - Wonderlic Personnel Test (10 min. to answer 50 free- response items) Theory of situational specificity → GMA did predict job performance but only sporadically o Validity of GMA for predicting job performance was highly situational o It might predict for one job in one employment setting but fail to do so for what was apparently the same job in another organization o Meta-analysis disconfirmed this theory → GMA measures were predictive of job performance for all jobs Validity for predicting performance on the job ranges from.58 for the highest complexity jobs (professional, scientific, and upper management jobs) to.23 at the lowest complexity level (feeding/ off-bearing jobs) GMA predicts performance on higher level jobs better that it does for lower-level jobs Other Traits and Variables That Affect Job Performance Specific Aptitudes and Specific Aptitude Theory Cognitive abilities that are narrower than GMA are called (specific) aptitudes o E.g. verbal, spatial, numerical aptitude Specific aptitude theory → hypothesizes that performance on different jobs requires different cognitive aptitudes and, therefore, regression equations computed for each job and incorporating measures of several specific aptitudes will optimize the prediction of performance on the job and in training o Research disconfirmed this theory o The GMA component appears to be responsible for the prediction of job and training performance, whereas the factors specific to the aptitudes appear to contribute little or nothing to prediction o Military research → hierarchical model showing a single causal path from GMA to performance and no paths from specific aptitudes to performance o There is no causal arrow from any of the aptitudes or subtests to training performance o Training performance is determined only by GMA, with the standardized path coefficient from GMA to performance being very large (.62) Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 21 Job Experience, GMA, and Job Performance Job experience, plays a major role in the determination of job performance Experience provides the medium for learning Individual differences → if one worker learns faster than another, the same amount of experience will produce a higher level of performance GMA turns experience into increased job knowledge and hence higher performance Ability Differences Over Time One might hypothesize that the validity of GMA declines over time as workers obtain more job experience o However, not supported by research o As the level of experience increases, the predictive validity does not decrease o Validity goes from.36 for 0–6 years, up to.44 for 6–12 years, up to.59 for more than 12 years (but conducted on a small sample) o Predictive validity of GMA is at least stable over time and does not decrease Consistent tasks VS inconsistent tasks o Consistent tasks are simple enough (or noncognitive enough) that their performance can be automated → minimal cog. resources needed → low correlation between GMA and performance o Inconsistent → complex enough that no matter how long they are performed, they continue to draw on cognitive resources → large correlation between GMA and performance Predictive Validity of Job Experience Mean predictive validity of job experience to be.18 across 373 studies Differences in experience are very important among newly hired employees: o The correlation between experience and performance ratings is.49 for those who have been on the job 0–3 years o Drops gradually to.15 for those who have been on the job 12 years + Ability Versus Experience as Predictors As workers gain job experience o correlation between experience and performance → decreases o correlation between GMA and performance → constant or increases This pattern may be even more pronounced today because of the rapidly changing product life cycles that require workers to learn new methods of production at ever shorter intervals Personality and Job Performance Research suggests that personality is less important than GMA Judge et al. (1999) → traits in childhood predicted adult occupational level and income Occupational level Income Conscientiousness.49.41 Openness to Experience.32.26 Neuroticism -.26 -.34 Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 22 After thorough regression → Conscientiousness most important GMA 59% more important than Conscientiousness The level of validity is higher when Conscientiousness is assessed using ratings by others rather than self-report personality inventories Conscientiousness functions as a motivational contributor to job performance Conscientiousness measures contribute to validity over and above the validity of GMA (by 18%), because the two are uncorrelated Integrity tests produce a 27% increase in validity over that of GMA alone Why Is GMA So Important for Job Performance? Causal analyses of the determinants of job performance show that the major effect of GMA is on the acquisition of job knowledge: o People who are higher in GMA acquire more job knowledge and acquire it faster o Higher levels of job knowledge lead to higher levels of job performance Job knowledge = mediating link between GMA and job performance 𝐽𝑜𝑏 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑙𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 o 𝐺𝑀𝐴 → 𝐽𝑜𝑏 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 For practical purposes of prediction in personnel selection, it does not matter why GMA predicts job performance o However theoretical explanation needed Summary Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 23 Cote & Miners, 2006 - Emotional Intelligence, Cognitive Intelligence, and Job Performance Aim: develop and test a compensatory model → the association between emotional intelligence and job performance becomes more positive as cognitive intelligence decreases Theoretical background Emotional intelligence: set of abilities that includes the abilities to perceive emotions in the self and in others, use emotions to facilitate performance, understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and regulate emotions in the self and in others Support of EI on job performance is mixed Linear effect model → emotional intelligence and cognitive intelligence make independent and complementary linear contributions to job performance o Simplistic and incomplete Compensatory effects model → moderating variables in the model o may explain why emotional intelligence predicted job performance in some past studies but not in others A Compensatory Model of Emotional Intelligence, Cognitive Intelligence, And Job Performance ↓𝐶𝑜𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐸𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 → ↑ 𝐽𝑜𝑏 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 Cognitive intelligence moderates the association between emotional intelligence and job performance, so that the association becomes more positive as cognitive intelligence decreases Emotional intelligence → set of abilities pertaining to emotions o the abilities to perceive emotions o use emotions to facilitate performance o understand emotions and emotional knowledge o and regulate emotions Emotional intelligence as a latent multidimensional construct (focus on broad construct rather than its dimensions separately) Emotional Intelligence as an Intelligence Conceptualized as type of intelligence because o It is consistent with the definition of intelligence by Schmidt (“ability to grasp and reason correctly with abstractions (concepts) and solve problems”) o Is not equated to general intelligence o Construct of emotional intelligence meets the ▪ Conceptual → (based on distinction between abilities and personality traits) → EI as an ability ▪ Correlational → distinct from other concepts (via explained variance) ▪ Developmental → potential to develop over time (environment, training, age) ▪ criteria of an intelligence proposed by Mayer, Caruso, and Salovey → Emotional intelligence conceptualized as the ability to grasp and reason correctly with emotional abstractions (emotional concepts) and solve emotional problems Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 24 Emotional Intelligence and Cognitive Intelligence Related but distinct We conceptualize emotional intelligence and cognitive intelligence General intelligence as separate broad sets of abilities that are incorporated under general intelligence in the hierarchical model Emotional intelligence and cognitive intelligence should be Cognitive Emotional positively associated because they are both subsumed under intelligence intelligence general intelligence Emotional Intelligence, Cognitive Intelligence, and Job Performance Cognitive intelligence is positively related to the dimensions of job performance—task performance and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB)—in most, if not all jobs Individuals with low cognitive intelligence may reap relatively large returns from high emotional intelligence because they tend to exhibit low job performance in most, if not all jobs Job performance that is not attained through cognitive intelligence may be attained through emotional intelligence via multiple complementary mechanisms 1. Expertise at identifying and understanding the emotions of other individuals → detecting and accommodating to co-worker’s emotions leads to OCB and better relations 2. Regulating emotion influences the quality of social relationships → genuine concern about colleague leads to a better relationship 3. Effects of emotions on how people think and act → inhibiting emotion to make a rational decision which increases performance → Suggests that emotional intelligence may positively relate to the job performance of organization members with low cognitive intelligence via compensation Method Hypotheses: 1. The association between emotional intelligence and task performance becomes more positive as cognitive intelligence decreases ↓𝐶𝑜𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐸𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 → ↑ 𝐽𝑜𝑏 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 2. The association between emotional intelligence and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) becomes more positive as cognitive intelligence decreases ↓𝐶𝑜𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐸𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 → ↑ 𝑂𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛. 𝐶𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑧. 𝐵𝑒ℎ. Participants: 175 full-time employees of a large public university Mean age = 41, 67% female, Mean work experience = 19 years Monetary incentive and + report of results (learn about own behavior) 23% response rate though typical for mail surveys Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 25 Procedure: Stage 1 o 100-minute session in the laboratory room (N=205) o 5 people per session, completed tests and questionnaires (emotional and cognitive intelligence) o Order of questionnaires and tests counterbalanced (alleviates fatigue and carryover effects) Stage 2 o Contacted the supervisor of each participant via e-mail within one week of the participant’s completing the laboratory session o Supervisor (N=106) completed measures of participants’ job performance on a questionnaire on the Internet o Obtained job performance measures for 175 participants Measures: Emotional intelligence - Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test Cognitive intelligence - Culture Fair Intelligence Test Job performance – 5 item scale for supervisors Controlled variables: o Leader-member exchange controlled by a LMX7 questionnaire (denotes the quality of the relationship between an employee and the employee’s supervisor) o Big Five traits of personality o Demographics → education level, the number of hours worked per week, and occupation Results ↓𝐶𝑜𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 1. 𝐸𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 → ↑ 𝐽𝑜𝑏 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 a. Supported ↓𝐶𝑜𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 2. 𝐸𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 → ↑ 𝑂𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛. 𝐶𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑧. 𝐵𝑒ℎ. a. Partially supported → supported for OCB Organization but not OCB Individual Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 26 Mediation analysis Leader-member exchange → did not mediate the relationship Big Five traits → did not mediate the associations Different emotional demands → no evidence that emotional intelligence and cognitive intelligence predicted job performance differently in jobs with different emotional demands Discussion Emotional intelligence becomes a stronger predictor of task performance and OCBO as cognitive intelligence decreases Results reveal that employees with low cognitive intelligence perform tasks correctly and engage in OCBO frequently if they are emotionally intelligent Emotional intelligence is an important predictor of task performance and OCBO because of its interactive effect with cognitive intelligence These results also reveal that using cognitive intelligence tests alone to predict performance entails risk, because employees with low cognitive intelligence can perform effectively if they have high emotional intelligence OCBI was not supported → may be due to behaviors encompassed by task performance and OCBO may depend on abilities more than does OCBI, which focuses, in large part, on helping others Limitations o Using supervisors for ratings → low inter-rater reliability Alternative explanations: o Emotional intelligence of individuals with low cognitive intelligence enhances their likeability and, in turn, their performance ratings o Emotional intelligence assisted individuals with low cognitive intelligence to manage their impressions well and, in turn, receive high performance ratings Future research: o Examine how to improve the measurement of emotional intelligence Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 27 Kerr et al., 2006 - Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness Type of study: correlational Aim: to investigate the relationship between managerial emotional intelligence (EI) levels and a rating of leadership effectiveness (subordinate ratings) Theoretical background Emotional intelligence: set of skills relevant to accurate appraisal and expression of emotion in oneself and in others, the effective regulation of emotion in self and others, and the use of feeling to motivate, plan, and achieve in one’s life (Salovey and Mayer, 1990) o 2 processes → thinking and feeling working together o Extent to which people’s cognitive capabilities are informed by emotions and the extent to which emotions are cognitively managed Models of EI o Mixed: diverse range of abilities, behaviors, and personality traits within their EI framework o Ability: focus exclusively on cognitive aptitudes, referring to EI as a form of intelligence reflecting the ability to process emotional information Streams of Models of EI o Stream 1 → based on the ability model of EI as measured by rating an individual’s ability to perform EI related tasks o Stream 2 → also based on the ability model of EI but adopts a self or peer report format o Stream 3 → comprises broader mixed models that include components not identified in the original definition of EI and adopt a self or peer report format Most popular model – Mayer and Salovey 1997 → hierarchical 1. Identifying emotions → The ability to recognize how you and those around you are feeling 2. Using emotions to facilitate thought → The ability to generate an emotion, and then reason with this emotion 3. Understanding emotions → The ability to understand complex emotions and emotional “chains” how emotions shift from one stage to another 4. Managing emotions → The ability to manage emotions in yourself and in others Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 28 Emotional intelligence and the leadership process o Leadership is a process of social interaction where the leader’s ability to influence the behavior of their followers can strongly influence performance outcomes ▪ An emotional process → recognizing and attempting to evoke emotions ▪ Leaders increase group solidarity and morale by creating shared emotional experiences o Most research has been done in laboratory with students → this one is more naturalistic o Studies that have applied the ability model within organizational contexts have found mixed results Method Participants: 38 supervisors, 1258 subordinates (M = 39), all from one company Measures: o Mayer Salovey Caruso emotional intelligence test (MSCEIT) EI test (38 supervisors) ▪ Perceiving emotions 4 different faces (faces task) 6 artistic images and photos (pictures task) ▪ Using emotions Facilitation task → which involves identifying which emotions may be useful to perform 5 different activities Sensations task → which requires the participant to relate emotions to other mental sensations such as taste and color ▪ Understanding emotions Changes task → progression of emotions and measures the ability to understand how emotions may change and alter over time e.g. fear often changes to relief and anger often changes to sadness Blends task → ability to identify the individual emotional constituents of complex feelings ▪ Managing emotions Emotional management → ability to incorporate his or her own emotions into decision making Social management → respondent’s ability to incorporate emotions into decision making involving other people ▪ MISCEIT generates 2 domain scores Experiential emotional intelligence (EEI), assessing an individuals’ ability to experience emotion (the cumulative score of the first two branches, perceiving and using emotions) Reasoning emotional intelligence (REI), assessing an individual’s ability to strategize about emotion (the cumulative score of the last two branches, understanding and managing emotions) Scored via o Consensus scoring (weakness of distribution being skewed and have high degree of kurtosis) o Expert scoring – selected Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 29 o Attitude ratings (subordinates) → managerially instigated → high response rate ▪ (1) I feel at ease with my supervisor when asking questions. ▪ (2) My supervisor asks me how I am doing on a regular basis. ▪ (3) I feel I am treated in a fair manner. ▪ (4) My supervisor supports me when I need help. ▪ (5) Keeping my supervisor informed, I can take initiatives. ▪ (6) We are involved as a team in solving problems related to our work. ▪ (7) We are involved as a team in decisions made that affect our work. ▪ (8) I am involved as an individual in solving problems related to our work. ▪ (9) I am involved as an individual in decisions made that affect my work. ▪ → 10 point Likert scale Results Half of the MSCEIT scores may act as a strong predictor of leadership effectiveness, particularly the branches within the experiential EI domain (perceiving r = 0.43, p < 0.01 and using emotion r = 0.52, p < 0.001) Relationship between supervisor ratings and the reasoning EI domain (understanding and managing emotions branches,) was not significant (r = -0.12) Conclusions EI score displayed a strong positive correlation with supervisor ratings (r = 0.39, p < 0.001) → 15.2% of variation in supervisor ratings can be predicted by the supervisor’s total emotional intelligence score o EEI score alone can predict 25.2 % of the variation EEI score was found to be highly correlated with supervisor ratings (r = 0.50, p < 0.001), whereas the REI score displayed no significant correlation (r = 0.09). The managing emotions branch is viewed as the most advanced emotional ability within the ability-based model and therefore, has the potentially greatest impact on the management function → not supported by this study (along with understanding emotions) Implications: o Validity of incorporating EI interventions alongside the recruitment and selection process and the training and development process of managerial personnel o Questions the conceptual validity of a key branch (managing and understanding emotions) of the MSCEIT O’Boyle et al., 2006 - The relation between emotional intelligence and job performance: A meta-analysis Type of study: meta-analysis Aim: to build on previous meta-analysis on investigating the relation between EI and job performance Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 30 Summary 1. Include 65% more studies that have over twice the sample size to estimate the relationships between emotional intelligence (EI) and job performance 2. More current meta-analytical studies for estimates of relationships among personality variables and for cognitive ability and job performance 3. Using the three-stream approach for classifying EI research 4. Performing tests for differences among streams of EI research and their relationships with personality and cognitive intelligence 5. Using latest statistical procedures such as dominance analysis 6. Testing for publication bias Classified 3 streams 1. Ability-based models that use objective test items 2. Self-report or peer-report measures based on the four-branch model of EI 3. ‘‘Mixed models’’ of emotional competencies Results The three streams have corrected correlations ranging from 0.24 to 0.30 with job performance. The three streams correlated differently with cognitive ability and with the Big Five. Streams 2 and 3 have the largest incremental validity beyond cognitive ability and the Five Factor Model (FFM). Dominance analysis demonstrated that all three streams of EI exhibited substantial relative importance in the presence of FFM and intelligence when predicting job performance Publication bias had negligible influence on observed effect sizes. The results support the overall validity of EI. Introduction Hypothesis Hypothesis 1a: As a set, collectively, all three EI streams are significantly and positively correlated with job performance. Hypothesis 1b: Individually, each EI stream is significantly and positively correlated with job performance. Hypothesis 2: EI is positively related to extraversion, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and cognitive ability and negatively related to neuroticism. Hypothesis 3a: Stream 1 measures of EI are more strongly related to cognitive ability relative to stream 2 and stream 3 measures. Hypothesis 3b: Stream 1 measures will show the lowest relationships with personality measures, stream 2 measures the next lowest, and stream 3 measures the highest relationships with personality measures. Hypothesis 4: In the presence of the Five Factor Model and cognitive ability, each EI stream exhibits incremental validity and relative importance in predicting job performance. Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 31 Method Inclusion criteria: o Articles – empirical and quantitative o A quantifiable performance outcome (e.g., supervisor rating, sales performance) or a correlate to general intelligence/FFM o In operationalizing job performance, only included individual level performance outcomes and except for 3 studies, all ratings were either objective or rated by a supervisor, peer, or subordinate o Some form of EI measure had to be included as a variable o Each effect size needed to reflect a unique sample Sample: 43 studies Results EI–job performance relation o Supported Hypothesis 1a indicating that the overall relation between EI and job performance is positive and significant (r = 0.28, p < 0.001) EI streams and individual differences tests of heterogeneity o The 3 streams of EI relate to job performance at similar levels, and we found no significant differences between the streams o This indicates that all 3 streams of EI predict job performance at roughly equivalent levels and provides support for Hypothesis 1b EI and individual differences o All three EI streams are positively related to extroversion, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and cognitive ability, and negatively related to neuroticism → support Hypothesis 2 o With one exception (out of 18 comparisons), EI relates to general intelligence and the FFM similarly for both students and workers o Consistent with Hypotheses 3a and 3b, the ability measures of EI (e.g., MSCEIT) have the weakest relations with the FFM, but the strongest with cognitive ability Incremental validity of EI o Cognitive ability and the FFM combined to predict a substantial 42.3 % (p < 0.001) of the variance in job performance o Only cognitive ability and conscientiousness are significant predictors Dominance analysis of EI o For stream 1, 86.3 % of the total explained variance in job performance is attributable to cognitive ability and conscientiousness o All EI streams, but most notably streams 2 and 3, provided additional explanatory power above and beyond the FFM and cognitive ability in the prediction of job performance o These findings offered support for Hypothesis 4 Publication bias o At present, we find either no evidence, or very limited evidence, of publication bias in the EI and job performance literature Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 32 Conclusion The three streams of EI research, ability measures, self- and peer-report measures, and mixed models, all predict job performance equally well Although our tests for incremental validity also found that stream 1 measures did not increase the explained variance, our additional dominance analysis found that stream 1 measures accounted for 6.4 per cent of the explained variance – enough to make it the third most important predictor in the model Also found a considerably higher incremental increase for stream 2 measures over and above cognitive ability and the Big Five Our findings also illustrated the similarities and differences in the nomological networks of the three EI streams o Stream 1 – cognitive intelligence, lowest correlation with Big Five o Stream 2 – different from stream 3 in 2 personality traits o Stream 3 – personality measures (traits, competencies, and skills) Implications Stream 2 and 3 measures may be more feasible to use in many settings. Measures for streams 2 and 3 can easily be distributed as pen and paper surveys and they take relatively little time to administer Stream 2 measures have a lower correlation with cognitive ability than stream 1, and lower correlations with the FFM than stream 3 Limitations Limited number of moderators tested Measures included for job performance were focused on task performance Range restriction – only a selected number of individuals being hired Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 33 Problem 3 – Personality Lee et al. 2005 - Predicting Workplace Delinquency and Integrity with the HEXACO and Five-Factor Models of Personality Structure Type of study: Correlational Aim: predicting delinquency and integrity in the workplace with HEXACO and Five Factor Model Background theory Five Factor Model / Big Five Repeatedly 6 not just 5 dimensions found Purpose of this study: o Review recent evidence from lexical studies and thereby to introduce this new model of personality structure to personnel researchers o Address implications of this new structural model for the field of personnel psychology → it’s effectivity over FFM A ROBUST SIX-FACTOR STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY FFM derived from lexical studies in English language Investigating additional languages and comprehensive sets of trait terms → new results 6 traits were found independently in 8 studies involving 7 different languages The 6th factor is consistently defined as sincerity, fairness, lack of conceit, and lack of greed o Reluctance versus a willingness to exploit others HEXACO model—an acronym of Honesty-Humility, Emotionality, eXtraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Openness to Experience THE HEXACO MODEL VERSUS FFM IN PREDICTING WORKPLACE BEHAVIOR Workplace delinquency scales and overt integrity tests both consist of admissions of wrongdoings such as theft, fraud, sabotage, and alcohol or drug use Some studies already suggest the limited ability of FFM to predict these variables o Moderately correlated to Conscientiousness and Agreeableness Honesty–Humility was strongly negatively correlated with some existing personality constructs tapping manipulation and exploitation, such as Machiavellianism, primary psychopathy, and social adroitness Method Participants: Workplace delinquency → 3 countries: Australia (N=106), Canada (N=179), and the Netherlands (N=128) Integrity tests → N=164 Canadian students Hypothesis: HEXACO can explain more than FFM Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 34 The omission of the sixth factor from the FFM is likely to undermine the utility of that model in predicting workplace deviance and overt integrity test scores. Measures: The HEXACO Personality Inventory (HEXACO-PI) Measures of the FFM dimensions Workplace delinquency - Workplace Behavior Questionnaire Overt integrity test - The Employee Integrity Index – only to Canadian Sample B Results Across the four samples recruited from the three different countries, HEXACO-PI Honesty– Humility showed the strongest correlations with workplace delinquency, surpassing the values yielded by the other HEXACO-PI scales and by the FFM variables The six HEXACO-PI scales produced much higher multiple correlations with the dependent variable than did measures of the Big Five factors Honesty–Humility construct was primarily responsible for the predictive superiority associated with the HEXACO model Conclusion Addition of Honesty-Humility dimension → HEXACO significantly outperformed FFM in workplace delinquency and integrity Predictive superiority of the HEXACO over the FFM was found in 3 different countries and with 3 different measures of the Big Five Limitations: o An alternative interpretation of the strong correlations between Honesty–Humility and the criterion variables of this study is that these relations merely reflect shared method variance due to self-report o Another potential limitation of this study might be that student samples were used rather than samples of older, nonstudent employees o Predictive validity of broad factors versus that of the narrow facets that constitute those factors Jonason et al. 2014 - Occupational niches and the Dark Triad traits Type of study: cross-sectional study Aim: to investigate whether vocational interests correlate with the Dark Triad traits Background theory Dark Triad: o Narcissism: entitlement, superiority, dominance ▪ Correlates with unethical behavior in CEOs & a great need of power o Machiavellianism: superficial social charm, manipulativeness ▪ Less organizational, supervisor and team commitment o Psychopathy: insensitive social attitudes, impulsivity, and interpersonal antagonism ▪ Feel diminished levels of workplace responsibility (which can affect productivity) Downloaded by: hellsbells | [email protected] Want to earn £756 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?  Stuvia.co.uk - The Marketplace for Revision Notes & Study Guides 35 ▪ Perceived as abusive by subordinates ▪ Focus on maintaining power using manipulative behaviors Personality traits as dispositional biases → drawing an individual towards / away from certain situations or niches Occupational niches – RAISEC o Realistic o Artistic o Investigative o Social o Enterprising o Conventional Gender differences: o Women prefer and are more often employed in social (e.g., teaching) and artistic (e.g., interior designer) jobs than men o Men tend to prefer realistic jobs more than women do Methods Hypothesis 1. Narcissism is the most social trait of the dark triad traits. It also includes the desire to be admired. People who are high in narcissism are drawn to jobs of admiration. a. Narcissists will be more interested in artistic, enterprising, and social careers. 2. Machiavellians are concerned with social influence and have potential for status like enterprising jobs. a. Machiavellians will be more interested in avoiding careers that involve caring for others. 3. Psychopathy is associated with the aversion of work that involves helping others. People who are high on psychopathy prefer jobs that isolate them. a. Psychopaths will be more interested in realistic and practical careers. 4. Low scores on the Dark Triad may facilitate the preference for artistic and social jobs in women. 5. High s