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Return of the Living Exam Guide: Third (and final!) Version From Napoleon’s invasion of Iberia to the modern day, this final exam has got it all. Let’s dig right in: Part I. The fall of the Bourbons and the rise of independence movements Charles III: The greatest of the Bourbon Kings, who implemente...

Return of the Living Exam Guide: Third (and final!) Version From Napoleon’s invasion of Iberia to the modern day, this final exam has got it all. Let’s dig right in: Part I. The fall of the Bourbons and the rise of independence movements Charles III: The greatest of the Bourbon Kings, who implemented the Bourbon Reforms (kicking out the Jesuits, taking direct control over the colonies. (1759-1788) Carlos IV: Pretty much useless son of Charles III (1788-1808). Fernando VII: Son of Carlos IV, leads a coup against his father and wins the throne…for the moment. Napoleon’s invasion of the Iberian Peninsula: 1808-1814. Napoleon claimed he was “liberating” Spain and Portugal. Captures Fernando VII. Napoleon places his own brother on the throne as Jose I (who is a drunk and is hated). The Spanish and Portuguese people find a bloody war against the French. Cadiz: Liberal reformers in this Spanish city push reforms which Fernando VII will undue once Napoleon is defeated. Independence leaders in Latin America use this opportunity to declare Independence. These efforts are led by Creoles and Mestizos, the people who are effectively running the colonies at this point. Uruguay, Argentina, and Chile become independent in 1816 because frankly they aren’t worth it to the Spanish to fight over. Not so with Mexico, Peru, and Colombia, where Fernando sends troops to put down the growing Independence movement. King Joao VI of the Braganza family line: Portuguese king who fled with his entire family to Brazil when Napoleon invaded. Brazilian Independence: White elites demand economic reforms. The 1794 Conspiracy of Tailors is the first wide scale revolt against Portuguese rule. It is brutally put down. Brazilian Reforms: The elite get their economic reforms, which includes strengthening slavery in the territory. Independence and Emperor Pedro I: After the defeat of Napoleon, King Joao sails back to Lisbon in 1815. He leaves behind his son Pedro with the instructions to lead any independence movements which might arise. Surprise surprise, one does and Pedro is at its head. He becomes the Emperor of a newly “Independent” Brazil in 1822. Most Brazilians hate Pedro I, and he is forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Pedro II who is only 6 years old at the time. Pedro II rules from 1840-1889. Brazil is one of the last countries to give up slavery. Pedro II is an economic liberal (believes in no government regulation of the economy) but isn’t so big on social liberalism. Slavery is very slowly and painfully rolled back during his reign but will not end until after Pedro II’s death. Mexican War for Independence: 1810-1821. Long, bloody war made longer because Fernando VII comes back into power after Napoleon is kicked out of the Iberian Peninsula. Fr. Miguel Hidalgo: 1753-1811. Parish Priest, wildly popular with the people, becomes a leader in the independence movement. Rang the church bells for the “Grito de Dolores” – a declaration of independence in 1810. Led a large army and did so very badly. Excommunicated in 1810, captured and killed in 1811. Becomes the symbol of Mexican independence. Fr. Jose Maria Morelos: 1765-1815. Parish priest in southern Mexico (Michoacan). Is convinced by Hidalgo to join the movement. Possibly Mestizo. Brilliant military commander. Executed in 1815. Rebel military leader Vicente Guerrero makes a pact with Royalist commander Agustin de Iturbide to establish an independent Mexico. Liberal revolt in Spain led by Rafael Riego: 1820 – forces Fernando VII to pull his troops out of Mexico to quell the rebellion. Mexican Independence is achieved in 1821! Slavery is abolished in the Mexican Constitution. Jose Francisco de San Martin: Revolutionary hero of Argentina, Chile, and Peru. Bernardo O’Higgins: Revolutionary hero of Chile Simon Bolivar: Revolutionary hero of Venezuela (and Bolivia, Chile, Peru, etc.) Independence movements succeed in many places across Latin America, but not in Puerto Rico or Cuba. Belize doesn’t obtain independence until 1981 (!) Cuban “Independence”: 1902 Dominican Republic: 1844 Haiti rises up against France in 1791 in a brutal war against slave owners. Led by Toussaint Louverature, the revolution is initially successful and has the support of the French Parliament (after they killed the rest of the Bourbon family). Napoleon takes control and vows to break Haitian independence (Haiti was one of France’s most lucrative colonies). The slave owners on other islands in the Caribbean use Haiti as an example of why *they* shouldn’t be so quick to jump on independence. PART II: The Dangerous Independence Era Liberals: Not quite like our own liberalism. Liberals in the 19th Century believed in laissez faire economics (no government intervention), voting rights for some, democrat-republicanism, and general forward thinking. But this first generation is also deeply respectful of the church. Believed in the survival of the fittest. Conservatives: Mostly royalists who would like to see, if not the Spanish king, then *some* strong, central ruler. Very much pro-Spanish culture and believe that Spaniards lack the capacity for democratic rule. Very pro-church, too. Believed the powerful – who are powerful because god picked them to be – should be charitable towards poor people (while keeping them in their place). Liberals and Conservatives will trade power (violently) for much of the next 50 years. Nearly 100 different presidents will hold power over the next half century. These shifts are highly destabilizing and the country is broke James Monroe: Fifth President of the United States. In 1823 proclaims the “Monroe Doctrine” – our hemisphere is off-limits to Europe BUT the US has the right to oversee the “peaceful interaction” of countries in Latin America. Hmmmm…this might cause some problems. Texas Independence: Americans (the “Empresarios”) petition to move to the Texas territory of Mexico in the 1820s. They are allowed to own land but cannot own slaves. Texans refuse to give up their slaves begin a rebellion in 1835. US funnels aid to them. Texas wins its Independence in 1836, defeating Mexican general Santa Ana. Border of Texas set as the Nueces River (the territorial border). Except, the Texans claim land all the way to the Rio Grande. Texas becomes part of the United States in 1845. The US agrees with Texan claims of their border. US President James K. Polk sends the army to secure the Rio Grande. This ends about as well as you think. The Mexican-American War 1846-1848 is a disaster for Mexico. At the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, the US takes the northern half of the country. Gadsden Purchase: 1853 the United States buys a chunk of land from Mexico which becomes New Mexico and Arizona. Caudillos: Military strongmen who rule Latin American countries – usually backed by conservatives, but sometimes by liberals – through Juntas, military dictatorships. Most newly independent countries including Mexico suffer constant leadership changes and are wracked by economic shifts. Most Liberals are Creoles/Mestizos Most Conservatives are White Europeans Dr. Jose Gaspar Rodriguez de Francia (Or: Dr. Francia): Paraguay’s revolutionary hero. Rules from 1814-1840 as the Perpetual Supreme Dictator. A pretty stable ruler who protected Indigenous people and encouraged marriage between Spanish and indigenous people. Brazil is largely stable under Pedro II. Enslaved people revolt against the government constantly, pushing for their rights. Manumission: An enslaved person could work for their owner under a contract allowing them to buy access to their freedom. Legendary anti-slavery hero Zumbi leads a massive revolt in Palmares, Brazil in 1695. 1838-1840: The Balaiada slave revolt in Brazil 1871: “Free Birth” law in Brazil allows children of enslaved women to be born free. 1885: Sexagenarian Law: Enslavement ends at 60 years of age. 1888: Golden Law of Freedom passed in Brazil outlawing slavery. Juan Manuel de Rosas: The quintessential Caudillo, ruled Argentina 1829-1852. Patriarchal standards do not change post-independence; in fact, in many ways they get even worse. Hacienda system: Mexican system of plantations inherited from Spain. Strongly patriarchal. Compesinos/Peon laborers often bound to the Hacienda. Self sufficient. The owners would not live on site, but in the wealthy areas of cities and only check in on the Haciendas in the countryside every once in a while. Profitable but taxes could cut severely into the revenue. 1830: Gran Colombia splits into Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador. Panama’s elites willing to work with the US who wishes to build a canal through the narrow isthmus. Colombia says no, but the US intervenes with its army and navy. Panama becomes an independent country whose canal area is exclusively leased to the US in 1903. The Panama Canal in 1914. War of the Triple Alliance 1865-1870: Paraguay possesses river access and wants access to the ocean which means taking land from either Brazil of the newly forming Uruguay. 1. Francisco Solano Lopez leads Paraguay. He sends his army through Argentina to attack Brazil. A bold move sir, let’s see how this plays out. 2. Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay all gang up on Paraguay, breaking the country’s economy and its exclusive river access. The country would never fully recover. The War of the Pacific 1879-1884: Bolivia still had access to the sea, the Chilean wealthy owned a lot of Bolivia nitrate mines (an ingredient in fertilizer and gunpowder). Peru is a Bolivian ally. 1. Bolivians jack up the taxes on Chilean nitrate. Chileans eventually get fed up and invade Bolivia. 2. SURPRISE. Peru has a secret pact with Bolivia, and attacks Chile. DOUBLE SURPRISE- Chile wins the war, seizing Bolivia’s coastal territory. The Chaco War 1932-1935: Bolivia and Paraguay become convinced oil lies beneath the Chaco region of central South America. They are wrong, but war erupts between the two countries. Bolivia loses big time. PART III The mid-19th Century period and Mexican Revolution Second Generation liberals change their relationship with the Catholic church. The church officers and higher-up clergy are mostly strong royalists/conservatives (as is the Pope). The Parish Priests are more on the side of the poor. Liberals demand the church turn over any land they own which is not directly under a church building. Other liberal reforms include keeping a national birth and death registry, the end of religious Fueros (those special privileges enjoyed by the church), freedom of religion, and the establishment of government run schools. Benito Juarez: Liberal civil servant and politician who became immensely popular as a reformer and honest politician. He led the liberal side in the 1858-1860 Reforma War. Juarez’s side wins and he assumes the Presidency. In 1861 he declares that Mexico will stop payment on its debts to France. Napoleon III: Nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte. Seizes power in the uprisings of 1848 and turns France into a dictatorship. When Mexico stops payment on its debt, Napoleon sends the French army to invade. Juarez and the loyalists in the army flee Mexico City and make their way north. Maximilian I: Hapsburg prince who is convinced by a fake election to become Emperor of Mexico in 1865. Napoleon III thinks he can control Maximilian. He is wrong. Maximilian initiates a series of liberal reforms, and even offers Juarez the Presidency of the country (he refuses). Eventually he issues the Black Decree making it a crime punishable by death to aid Juarez and his men. The countryside rises up against him. Napoleon has had enough and pulls out the troops. Maximilian’s reign crumbles. He is caught and executed in 1867. Porfirio Diaz becomes president in 1876 and holds power with a iron fist until 1810. His reign is characterized by laissez faire economics (led by his advisors, the “cientificos”) which leads to heavy foreign (mostly American) ownership of natural resources. The Hacienda system becomes further entrenched. Social Darwinism (1860s-early 20th Century): Belief in the “Survival of the Fittest” concept as applied not just to species but to nations of people. Some races should/will be wiped out by breeding or by not allowing them to breed. Disgusting junk science but has a surprisingly large following. Liberals believed that Social Darwinism meant that poor people deserved their fate. Eugenics: The “science” behind Social Darwinism. Includes the forced sterilization of millions of women and theories about to properly “breed” humans. Herbert Spencer 1860s: Inventor of the phrase “Survival of the Fittest” and formulator of Social Darwinism. Arthur Gobineau 1848: French aristocrat scientist who believed that race mixing led to inferior human “stock” and that white “stock” was the superior kind of humanity. Rudyard Kipling: British poet and novelist who wrote The White Man’s Burden – a poem meant to remind white people of their duty toward the “uncivilized” races of the world. Carlos Octavio Bunge: Argentine who came up with the hierarchy of Latin American “breeds”. His work encourages the countries of the Southern Cone (Argentina, Chile, Uruguay) to encourage white Europeans to immigrate. Embranquecimento: Brazilian policy of inviting whitening the country. Afro-descended people stripped of land, and encouraged/forced to repatriate to Africa. White Europeans encouraged to settle. Cesare Lombroso: Italian criminologist who invented Positivist Criminology (1876) – that criminals are preset with certain atavistic – throwback, primal – traits and that one can tell by the shape of a person’s head (“phrenology”) or the color of their skin. Mexican Secretary of Education José Vasconcelos: Believed that inferior genes will be out bred by (mestizo) genes to create a “cosmic” or “synthetic” race. Diego Rivera: Famous Mexican muralist, who depicted Latin American life through the lens of leftism. Lover of Frida Kahlo. Frida Kahlo: One of Mexico’s great painters and turn of the century intellectuals. Lover of Diego Rivera. Nationalists at the turn of the century (1890s-1930s): Turn away from eugenics and social Darwinism, and embrace indigenous culture and heritage. Manuel Alonso: Puerto Rican nationalist who wrote about the Jibaros – the hard working, kind, generous, adaptable, and wise working class people. Jose Marti: Towering Cuban intellectual who is frequently cited by Latin American nationalists as their inspiration. Mexican Revolution: 1910-1917 – Porfirio Diaz had reigned since 1876. While stable, Diaz ruled the country as a dictator. He allowed wealthy foreigners – mainly Americans – to buy up large chunks of Mexican natural resources. The Hacienda owners became very wealthy under Diaz, while the poor suffered tremendous losses of land and resources. The situation boils over during the election 1910. Cientificos: The economic and political advisors to Diaz. Francisco Madero: Successfully runs against Diaz for President in 1910 – and wins! He’s then immediately thrown in jail by Diaz. Madero promptly escapes and writes the “Plan de San Louis Potosi” urging Mexican people to rise up against the corrupt Diaz regime. They do! Diaz flees the capital in 1911 and Francisco Madero is made President. Emiliano Zapata: Mexican revolutionary general who helps defeat a string of anti-revolutionary politicians. Dies by assassination in 1919. Pancho Villa: Mexican revolutionary general who also helps defeat a string of anti-revolutionary politicians. His army is all but wiped out by the government in 1915. Villa leads a raid on Colombus, New Mexico hoping to spur the United States into invading Mexico in 1916. He is eventually captured and killed in 1923. Madero cannot hold on to the Presidency, and the revolutionary generals are demanding immediate land reform and political change. Madero is ousted from power in 1913 and assassinated. A group of politicians and generals backed by the United States puts Victoriano Huerta in power. Henry Lane Wilson: US ambassador to Mexico during the Mexican Revolution. Backs the wealthy elite and pushes for regime change when he doesn’t get the results he wants. Venustiano Carranza: Moderate politician who takes charge of Mexico after revolutionary generals defeat Victoriano Huerta in 1917. The Constitution of 1917: Universal suffrage for men, massive land reform, beginning of economic nationalism (the state owning large corporations and natural resources for the benefit of the public). Carranza attempts to name is own successor instead of holding a fair election in 1920. He is chased from power by the remaining revolutionary generals. The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine: Teddy Roosevelt declares one should “walk softly but carry a big stick” – that is, the US will intervene in Latin America if it believes peace and security are threatened. The Hay-Herran Treaty: US tries to buy Panama into Independence from Colombia in 1903 for 40 million dollars and a quarter million bucks every year for 99 years. Negotiated by American John Hay and Colombian Thomas Herran. But Panama thinks they can get a better deal, and pulls out… The Panama Canal: Started by the French but later abandoned. The US – after supporting Panamanian Independence – leases the land on which to build the canal and begins digging. Thousands die to malaria (probably tens of thousands), but the canal is finished in 1914. Most workers are Afro-Caribbean, many from the island of Barbados. Dollar Diplomacy: The creation of President William Howard Taft. The idea is very similar to what was happening in Mexico under Diaz – using US wealth to put politicians friendly to US interests into power. The Revolutionary Fervor of the 1910’s: While World War 1 lays waste to Europe, Marxist revolutionaries gain power in the former Russian Empire, and influence people like Generals Zapata and Villa. Part IV: The Modern Era Manifest Destiny: The belief that the United States was given all of America by god. Phrase first appears in an 1845 newspaper editor by John L. Sullivan. US military interventions from 1898 to 1934: Cuba, Puerto Rico, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Panama, Nicaragua. The Spanish American War: 1. Cuba was not originally a big sugar colony until after the Haitian Revolution. 2. 40% of the Cuban population was enslaved by 1827 3. 1868-1878 Civil War as sugar barons want control over the island’s politics. 4. Slavery abolished 1886 5. US tries to buy Cuba several times, in 1854 from the Spanish – and by 1865 US interests owned much of the islands. 6. Jose Marti the Cuban Nationalist intellectual is killed while protesting US intervention. 7. Valeriano Weyler: Cuban dictator. Orders the Reconcentration Policy that forced rural peasants into concentration camps. 8. Anti Weyler/anti American rebels rise up in the countryside in 1898. US first sends marines in to secure US property. The USS MAINE mysteriously blows up in Havana’s harbor. US blames Spain and declares war. Ship almost certainly blew up for…other…reasons. 9. Spain is easily defeated. “The Splendid Little War” Theodore Roosevelt becomes a war hero at San Juan Hill. 10. Guam, Philippines, Puerto Rico, and (sort of) Cuba given to the US. 11. Cuba is given Protectorate status from the US. 12. Platt Amendment: 1901. US writes part of the Cuban Constitution which allows them to intercede in Cuban government and gives US a lease on Guantanamo Bay in perpetuity. 13. US backs all the right wing dictators up through Fulgencio Batista. 14. Castro gains control of country in 1959, thanks to support from a wide socio economic spectrum. 15. Castro’s reign: The good- World class healthcare system, almost 100% literacy (highest in the western hemisphere), massive land redistribution, able to defend itself against America, strong social welfare system, guaranteed rights for everyone regardless of race. The Bad- Dictatorship, anti-LGBT, anti-Catholicism, suppression of dissidents, become a pseudo-colony of USSR. 16. Miguel Diaz Canal: President since 2019. First Prez not from the “Revolutionary” era. US military occupies: Haiti (1915-1934) The Dominican Republic (1916-1924) Nicaragua (1909-1925) Franklin Delano Roosevelt: The “Good Neighbor Policy” of lending military and economic aid to Latin American countries. Truman Doctrine of Containment: 1947 – The US will intervene in any attempt by the Soviet Union or other communist nations/rebel groups to take over another country. America as global policeman. World War II: 1939-1945. Allies win (Yaaaaaaaay!) The Cold War: Okay maybe dial the enthusiasm back. 1946-1991. The United States and the Soviet Union use Latin America (and almost everywhere else) as pawns in an international game of nuclear-powered chess. United States uses covert and overt force in even more interventions in Latin America: Guatemala (1954): Jacobo Arbenz is elected President of Guatemala. Arbenz is a democratic socialist (not a Marxist) but his call for land reforms angers the wealthy upper class and especially the United Fruit Company – an American firm. Arbenz is called a communist for insisting UFC either divest its unused land or it will be taken from them. The CIA backs a coup against Arbenz, instituting a fascist government. Guatemala descends into a decades-long Civil War. In the 1960s, US Green Berets train the government’s commandos in counter-insurgency tactics. Cuba (1950s): The US backed right wing dictator Fulgencio Batista as ruler of Cuba. Much of the land was owned by a few fruit companies, and most Cubans were destitute. Fidel Castro (future dictator of Cuba 1959-2008), Argentinean Che Guevara, Raul Castro, and several more Marxist leaders lead a guerrilla war against Batista. The Cuban military receives constant support from the US. Surprise! Castro beats the Batista government with the help of general middle class disgust with US policy and Batista’s cruel regime. America holds on to one tiny corner – Guantanamo Bay. Cuba (1961): Bay of Pigs invasion. US forces attempt to invade Cuba with the help of right wing Cuban exiles. Terrible management leads to US humiliation, deaths of most of the US trained exiles, and a hardening of anti-US attitudes. Meanwhile (1958) an American embargo is enforced on Cuba: Any ship that docks in Cuba is automatically denied entry into the US. Policy softens a little over time, but is still in place. Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): USSR attempts to place medium range nuclear missiles in Cuba (90 miles away from the US) in retaliation for the US putting missiles in Turkey. A spy plane catches the Soviets and Cubans before the missiles arrive, constructing the launch pads. Pres. Kennedy enforces a “quarantine” around the island using the US Navy, and tells the world that they will turn away any Soviet vessels. Crisis lasts for 13 days in October, perhaps the closest we’ve ever come to nuclear war. Khrushchev – Soviet Premier – backs down in the end and missiles are removed from Turkey in exchange. Chile (1973): Chile elects Salvador Allende – a leftist – in 1970. The US backs a coup against Allende in 1973 and puts Augusto Pinochet in his place. Allende is (probably) assassinated in 1973. Pinochet runs a terror regime, complete with torture camps. El Salvador (1980s): 77% of all land in El Salvador was owned by only.01% of the population, alongside large foreign investment in its coffee economy. Death squads roamed the countryside terrorizing any peasant and/or leftist caught organizing against the government. A left wing revolutionary, led by the Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front (FMLN) rises in 1980 and takes over much of the country. The US backs the brutal right wing dictatorship. The El Salvador National Guard rapes and murders four US nuns in the country as relief workers. The US would continue to destabilize the country until the US backed election of Dictator Jose Duerte in 1984. Nicaragua (1981): The left-wing Sandinistas force out a right wing dictatorship in 1980. Right wing paramilitary groups called Contras take to the countryside. US President Ronald Reagan signs a suspension of aid to the country until the Sandinistas relinquish power. Secretly he also authorizes the CIA to support cocaine smuggling to help fund the Contras. Hundreds of thousands of people die. Economic Nationalism 1935-1980: Foreign imports fall 60% (this is a good thing to the nationalists) Import Substitution Industrialization: Raising tariffs on foreign items, and nationally subsidizing industry. The idea is to build what is needed “in country” rather than import goods from other countries. This applies to both heavy industry (steel forging, chemical engineering) and light industry (food production, textiles). Some success stories: Inca Cola (Peru – it’s delicious!). Brazil’s Francesco Matarazzo – Italian born immigrant who built a massive industrial empire in the late 19th and early 20th Centuries. Organized labor and strikes: Sao Paulo General Strike in 1917 led by Luis Carlos Prestes (movement otherwise known as the Prestes Column) Anarcho-Syndicalism: System in which the workers own and manage the factories. Hipolito Yrigoyen: Argentina’s President from 1916-1922, and 1928-1930 (removed from power in a coup). Progressive reformer, supported unions. Confederation of Mexican Workers: Called the “CTM” – government co-opted union leaders into positions of power, and the CTM attacked independent labor organizations who complained about this cronyism. Populism: Politicians who claim to support the “common man” and loudly demand political and economic reform. Conservative elites hate them, but students/farmers/workers love them. Often used the expanding mass media technology to spread their message. Hated by the church elites, too. Getulio Vargas of Brazil: President from 1930-1945, and 1951-1954. “The Father of the Poor”. Crushes communist/Marxist rebellion led by Luis Carlos Prestes. Became dictator in 1937. Sides with the US in WWII. Greatly expanded social welfare system and supported Brazil as a race-based democracy. Also promoted soccer and Carnival as Brazilian cultural icons. Removed from power in 1945 but comes back in 1951. Commits suicide while being investigated for ordering the assassination of political rivals. Juan Peron (the guy from Evita): President of Argentina 1946-1955, 1973-1974. Husband of Eva Peron, immensely popular singer and actress. Led a military coup, promising the “descamisados” (the “shirtless ones” – the very poor) good wages, pensions. Eventually forced out of power by the military. Famously forced many British investors out of the country. Came back in the early 1970s, reorganized the military – his new wife Isabel is elected vice president (how very convenient) and after his death assumes the presidency. Bureaucratic authoritarianism: Political power concentrated into the hands of a few elite government positions and supported by the military. This becomes the de facto governing structure throughout Latin America for decades. Leads to widespread human rights violations. Professionalization of military: Foreign military officers are invited to train South American (especially Southern Cone) military forces – moving away from volunteer armies raised as needs be, these militaries are effective at both defending their countries and crushing dissent within them. Americans train many far right wing government officers. The Dirty War (1976-1983): Argentine “war” against itself, as the military Junta attacks any leftists. Tens of thousands die in torture camps or simply disappear. Supported by the United States through Operation Condor, a CIA-backed series of right wing coups and military support complete with training in torture or “advanced interrogation techniques”. Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo: Advocacy and protest group demanding the government reveal who they “disappeared” (the “deseparecidos”). The Falkland War: 1982 conflict between the Argentine government and the British over the Malvinas (or Falkland) Islands off the coast of Argentina. The British defeat Argentina and an embarrassed Argentina collapses. Raul Alfonsin: Centrist who becomes President of Argentina in 1983 and restores the democratic republic. Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner: First woman elected to the Presidency – 2007-2015. Javier Milei: Current President of Argentina. Anarcho-libertarian. (remember Anarcho-Syndicalism? This is its opposite – unrestrained corporate power). Salvador Allende: Leftist President of Chile, democratically elected. Nationalized banks, industry, natural resources. Massive land reform. Had the support of General Rene Schneider. Forced out of power and commits suicide (or possibly killed) and Schneider is assassinated in 1973 by a right wing coup sponsored by the United States and led by Augusto Pinochet. Pinochet is a bloody dictator, responsible for torture camps and political assassinations. 1973-1990. American Secretary of State for Richard Nixon Henry Kissinger pushes the US to undermine more Latin American countries. Miguel Enriquez: Left wing Chilean organizer, assassinated by the Pinochet regime in 1974. Plebiscite Vote: A vote made by the entire population of eligible voters, in this case a vote to continue the current administration or change it. Pinochet is removed from power (mostly, he hangs on as a senator for a little while longer) in a 1988 Plebiscite election, steps down in 1989 and is removed from the senate in 1990. Michelle Bachelet: Socialist who becomes the first Woman President of Chile in the 2013 elections (Prez from 2014-2018). Gabriel Boric: Current President of Chile, one of the youngest world leaders at 38 years old (this makes me feel like I have wasted my life) Military Dictatorship in Brazil: 1964-1985. Military Junta rules Brazil – authoritarian, crackdown on civil rights, free market economics. Moderates slowly push for more open and democratic reforms. Jair Bolsonaro: Extreme right wing President of Brazil from 2019-2023. When he lost the Presidency, his followers stormed the federal government buildings and called for a coup (which Bolsonaro supported). Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva: Current President of Brazil. Leftist. Served as President from 2003-2011.