Natives and the fur trade: Study Sheet - PDF

1.​ Natives before contact with Europeans, and the fur trade to the mid-to-late nineteenth century. Before Contact -​ Begins with the arrival of the first peoples. -​ Native religions maintain that aboriginals peoples originate in north america -​ Archeologists believe they originat...

1.​ Natives before contact with Europeans, and the fur trade to the mid-to-late nineteenth century. Before Contact -​ Begins with the arrival of the first peoples. -​ Native religions maintain that aboriginals peoples originate in north america -​ Archeologists believe they originated in asia -​ Consensus is that it was at least 12,000 years ago -​ Debris left by hunters at blue fish caves in the yukon -​ Whenever they did arrive, they came by hunting game over a land bridge between the new world and siberia, and followed their food over ice-free corridors -​ Early hunters used stabbing or throwing spears, and later the atlatl -​ 2500 AD Indigenous hunters adopted the bow and arrow -​ 9000 BC early hunters faced the gradual extinction of giant mammoths and other large game they relied on -​ Apparently died from effects of global warming and overhunting consequently, hunters concentrated on buffalo: Most famous is the head smashed in cliffs in Alberta -​ Develop trade networks, and native cultures trades so much that some were affected by today America natives -​ Hopewell group - Pottery of their group have been found in Alberta, as well as earth lodge Western Natives’ Three main life styles 1.​ West coast -​ Relied on fishing -​ Three social classes -​ Nobles, commoners, and slaves: Everyone but the slaves all west coast households had their own hunting and fishing territory i.​ Lineage was traced through the maternal line– in the south traced through the male line, and in the central area it was traced through both lines b.​ Villages main political unit i.​ No real political organization beyond the local village– no confederacies like on the plains c.​ Haida women i.​ Queen charlotte islands ii.​ Property was inherited through female lines iii.​ Active trades and shrewd bargainers iv.​ Haida marriages were arranged by the brides father and her mothers uncle v.​ Wives were expected to accept their husbands authority  vi.​ Haida women did occasionally serve as chiefs– but for the most part had little political power vii.​ Excluded from hunting and fishing, on the other hand, viii.​ A wife's consent was needed for most trade deals ix.​ Participated in ceremonies and could be shamans d.​ Salish women i.​ Little input into community decision making ii.​ Husbands were chosen by their parents iii.​ When they married, they lived in their husbands village iv.​ If there was a divorce, the children remained with the father e.​ Used cedar/fur to construct i.​ Boats ii.​ Household goods (bowls spoons, totem poles and houses) f.​ Potlatch important gift-giving ceremony i.​ Used in inaugurate the chief or to mourn the dead, or simply to confirm status 2.​ Woodland (Prairie West) Northern Cree, and most of the Athapaskan speaking peoples a.​ Followed seasonal cycle of movement in pursuit of their game i.​ Deer, moose, and caribou b.​ Also hunted woodland bison (Especially in the winter) c.​ In the summer the winter hunting groups came together to fish, as well as gather plants and berries d.​ Social organization informal i.​ Two levels of leadership: each winter band had a chief (the strongest hunter) and the larger summer bands had a chief (the most respected leader of the winter bands) e.​ Sharing important value i.​ Is game was scares in one area, neighbouring bands would allow them to hunt in their traditional lands f.​ Womens work was essential i.​ Pitched tents ii.​ Set up camp and carried their effects from camp to camp iii.​ Fetched water iv.​ Cut firewood v.​ Snared small animals vi.​ Caught fish vii.​ Prepared hides viii.​ Dressed the game ix.​ Wove baskets  x.​ Made pots xi.​ Collected birch bark xii.​ Repaired canoes xiii.​ Made snowshoes, moccasins, clothes and tools xiv.​ Gathered berries and cooked the food xv.​ As in all native groups, women were all primarily responsible for raising the children: men did the fighting and hunted the big game xvi.​ Athapascan first nations: Women as well as men could be shamans. 3.​ Plains Buffalo Hunters a.​ Plains Assiniboines, nation and allies of the Blackfoot confederacy (Siksika, Kainai, Piikani, Athapaskan speaking Tsuu t’ina b.​ Algonquian Siksika came from the woodlands from eastern canada and were one of the earliest historic people on the plains c.​ Buffalo was the main staple where they secured most food clothing, lodging, tools and fuel d.​ Plains natives hunted buffalo in different ways i.​ Drove them over the cliff ii.​ Fence them in iii.​ Or surrounded them in the bare open plains iv.​ Hunted large number in the summer e.​ In the winter they generally congregated on the edge of the park belt or the river valleys, finding wood for fuel or buffalo seeking shelter f.​ Male culture “macho” i.​ Derived status from being tough and masculine– specifically from raiding enemies or belonging to a military society ii.​ Military society protected the ban, enforced the rules of the buffalo hunt and provided order during the summer gatherings g.​ Women butchered buffalo/made pemmican i.​ Pemmican– buffalo meat, fat, and berries pounded together and dried 1.​ Highly nutritious and could last for months Plains Buffalo hunter and Woodland Societies -​ Quite egalitarian -​ The good of the group rather than the individual was emphasized -​ Leadership exercised by example/ persuasion rather than coercion -​ Chiefs were chosen for their ability as well as their bloodline: did not accept attempt to use force -​ If they attempted to abuse power they lost their prestige and influence -​ Did not use their influence for social gain -​ Social Status gained, not by wealth, but generosity  -​ Because Chiefs were responsible for looking after the people, they sometimes ended up being the poorest of their bands -​ Leadership shared -​ Other persons took charge in certain circumstances -​ A leader selected by social consensus for the hunt and another leader (a different one) for war -​ Native Religion -​ Drew no distinction between humans and the natural environment -​ All things could have spirits that had to be placated through rituals, prayers, or avoidance of taboos -​ Believed in a supreme being– or “great spirit” -​ Attempted to access through vision quests, shamans, or religious societies -​ Believed that their happiness and survival depended on spiritual communion and that if they broke faith their resources (animals and plants) would disappear. Fur Trade information: Fur Trade -​ Most were affected by the European fur trade, during the 17th century. -​ By the early 18th century. French fur traders based in Montreal est. fur trade posts in what is now manitoba -​ The fur trade ONLY worked because of the Natives, it was voluntary -​ Had it not been for their participation, the fur trade would not have been as successful -​ For much of the Fur trade era, Natives controlled the trade; Cree and Assiniboine became middle men: making substation profits from their native customers to the west -​ When European traders made it further in land (SK, AB, BC) Cree continue to prosper trading Europeans food stuffs they needed to survive -​ Because of this, natives had to be treated fairly and pay them good prices for their furs, especially after growing competition between fur trade companies allowed natives to play between the companies to get the best prices for their furs -​ Two main companies vy for supremacy -​ Hudson's Bay Company -​ North West Company (1783-84) -​ Led to them fighting and combining -​ Natives then had to face monopoly, and sell at lower prices Benefits and Negative effects of fur trade for native -​ Given Pots, pans, sewing needles, metal knives, guns, etc without changing their lives in any fundamental ways -​ Trade goods made lives easier, but sometimes… -​ Companies sold Liquor to Natives  -​ Trading sessions only occurred only occasionally because most natives lived far away from trading posts, meaning there wasn’t much opportunity for liquor -​ It was also heavy, meaning it was hard to carry lots back home -​ Reputable companies tended to avoid given native liquor, if only for self-interest -​ If they were alcoholic, they couldn’t do their hunting -​ Occasionally traders debauched women -​ European diseases decimated many tribes -​ Smallpox epidemics (1780-81 & 1887-88) decimated over half of tribes and their people Why did the natives Trade? -​ Arthur Ray: Natives driven by economic motives… material self-interest -​ Portrays Natives as astute buyer who used comp between euro parties to obtain the highest quality goods possible at the best price -​ Contends that monopoly control of the trade by the Cree and Assiniboine middle-men, frustrated the HBC traders and in-land Natives, who were frustrated with the up-cost they dealt with from the middle-man -​ Ray believes a capitalist society pov -​ Neoliberal -​ Calvin Martin: Natives participated in fur trade to eradicate fur-bearing animals whose spirits had inflicted epidemics on Natives -​ Emphasis on Native religion, but many historicists have criticized this- pointing it comes from conjecture then evidence -​ Most aboriginals blamed white traders and sorcerers -​ Ray would say that they weren’t over hunting due to spiritual reasons, rather they were pursuing economic interests -​ Focus on economic important certainly has validity -​ European trades frequently said they were comparative shoppers and comparative bargainers -​ However, Indigenous peoples were very different from white middle class people– they weren’t drive by good deals, but were rather inelastic -​ When prices for furs rose they provided fewer furs– because they has a fixed level of goods they wanted -​ Suggests indigenous peoples did not trade for more goods then they did, because their limited capacity to bring them back -​ Brad believes: Natives lacked the materialistic, acquisitive, individualistic mindset of europeans -​ Sylvia Van Kirk disagrees: Argues natives women sought (individual) status and influence by acting as guides, interpreters, intermediaries, and providers of foodstuffs and  clothes; as fur-trade wives, they also sought more trade goods and other stuff for themselves -​ Also argues that they aimed to improve their material lives -​ Additionally, domestic duties were lighter– advantage to being married to a fur trade rep according to her. -​ Downside– pregnancies and less control over the raising of children -​ They took every opportunity to take control of their own individual selves -​ THIS IS VAN KIRK'S OPINION -​ Van Kirk perhaps pays insufficient attention to community context of fur trade: some women married traders to help families; some forced by fathers to marry traders to benefit their bands -​ Jaquline Peterson: some women married traders because of dream/vision -​ Despite the many different views, the simplest explanation is pragmatism -​ Not for status or wealth, but to make their day to day lives easier -​ Pots were more durable, steel knives cut better, guns were more effective then certain types of hunting instead of spears and arrows. Relationships between Native women and European fur-traders (?) -​ HBC prohibited marriages between employees and native women, but in the 18th century restriction was gradually allowed to lapse and many Bay company men formed lifelong relationships with their native wives. -​ Many offsprings of these unions joined mother’s band, becoming part of “homeguard”-- were fully assimilated into mothers culture and way of life -​ These people DID NOT develop an unique culture or social status like the french Metis– they became “amerindian” -​ Women’s culture– Amerindian -​ Some HBC officers took active role in children's upbringing; these “country born” were fully assimilated into father’s culture/way of life -​ Men’s culture– country born -​ Unions between the NWC men and amerindian women shaped a somewhat fur trade society then the HBC. -​ Extensive travelling of the Nor’ Westers resulted in fewer permanent relationships with native women (in some cases) -​ Some practiced ‘serial monogamy’ (Sylvia Van Kirk -​ Several wives– but only one at a time (frequently when they left a wife they placed her and any children with another trader. -​ However, many NWC men did stick around and assimilate their children into the fathers culture  -​ Offspring of native women and “nor’wester” french speaking voyageurs formed a new social group, the Metis. Who created a unique culture that combined elements from native and Euro societies -​ Included their own languages– most common was Michif: a blend of Cree and French -​ Another is scottish gaelic and ojibway -​ By being immune to euro diseases– the population grew, and settled around canada – Biggest being in Red River (winnipeg area) 2.​ The end of Native autonomy: economic decline, the whiskey trade, disease, cultural challenges and suppression, missionaries, the numbered treaties, residential schooling, Native agriculture, the sale of reserve land. Nineteenth Century: Independent Natives become impoverished, dependant, demoralized -​ 1821: year that the NW and HBC merged– after this comp for the purchase of native furs was greatly reduced. -​ They could no longer play one big company off the other. They were at the mercy of the HBC. The only party to deal with -​ Ojibwe of SE Manitoba among the first of the prairie natives to lose self-reliance. -​ Some were forced to trade the pelts of small animals for pemmican -​ Some became reliant on wage work (local farmers or HBC) -​ Gerald Friesen comments: By mid century first nations had “exchanged the econ of hunting gathering back for employee status” -​ Competition for scarce buffalo and game increased friction between native tribes -​ 1869 Cree diplomats were killed by Siksika warriors during an attempt to reach a truce. -​ American Whiskey traders moved into southern AB in 1860 -​ Notorious traders: JJ Healy (former indian war vet) and Alfred Hamilton -​ Built first post in lethbridge and netted 15,000 -​ Mid 1870s some 40 whiskey post est in albert all linked to fort benton montana where they got supplies -​ The main sell was a vile concoctions -​ Green tea, and so much other nasty stuff i didn’t write.  -​ So addicted to alcohol, indigenous people fought each other and a wild number of people died due to alcohol related violence -​ 1873: Cypress Hills– white trades pour bullets into Assiniboine Camp killing at leat 20 people -​ Disease Epidemics in 1837-38 carried away ¾ of assiniboine, siksika, kainai, Piikani, Tsuu T’ina, several thousands -​ 1870s– Cree attack Blackfoot confederacy by the old man river -​ Kainai were joined by their allies the Piikani who has repeating rifles and up the 300 cree died and roughly 30 kainai and piikani died -​ Both absolutely exhausted by disease and starvation, they concluded a truce Missionaries and Natives -​ Inadvertently contributed to social and cultural problems amongst the native people -​ Natives had adapted to significant changes in the past, but the way missionaries went about trying to convert, it didn’t go well -​ Tongans incorporated Christianity into their culture in a way they considered beneficial -​ Believed that the gospel has enhanced their life -​ To this day Tongans speak their own language, wear their traditional clothes and dance their traditional dance and traditional ceremonies, live off the land and sea as they always have done. Their traditional culture and social system (and political) remains intact. -​ Very few tongans would say it would have a negative impact on their people -​ This was not the case with other first nations in the prairie west -​ Why/How did Canadian missionaries harm natives -​ Abuse of children in church and residential schools -​ Forced natives to become christian s by supporting laws that prohibited religious native practices -​ Many Missionaries were unwilling to separate biblical teachings from their own european culture -​ It was not enough they believe in Jesus, and they must also wear european clothes, cut their hair, stop speaking their language, abandon the hunt and take up “respectable occupations”, absorb white middle class assumptions of gender and wealth accumulation, jettison their community values and espouse individual ownership of private property. -​ For the natives to become christian, they had to become european. -​ More than a matter of faith, but assimilating people into a supposedly superior civilization At the same time…  -​ They promoted peace amongst warring first nation s -​ Lobbied the gov in agriculture and health care -​ Tried to hold Ottawa accountable for its failure to live up to treaty provinces -​ Missionaries we advocated for semi-illiterate people who would have had a great difficulty making their views known to gov officials -​ They also had differences in their approach to native cultures -​ John McDougall: did not support banning the traditional dances Missionary Activity -​ Methosists had some impact on Cree and Stoney Dakota -​ McDougall married Abigail Steinhauer -​ Catholics had more converts partly they were more willing to accommodate native culture then their protestant counterparts -​ 1818 first red river missionaries -​ Fort Chipewyan -​ Best known Oblate: French Canadian Father Lacombe “man of the good heart” by the Siksika -​ By the advice of him and other missionaries, prairie natives demanded treaties to help them Treaties -​ Ojibwa protested surveyors on their land -​ Gov willing to sign them because: -​ Royal Proclamation (1763) recognized a kind of indian title that has to be extinguished -​ Robinson Treaties (Ontario) has established precedent of creating reserves -​ Treaties were more cost effective than the US pattern of allowing farmers to invade and steal indian territory -​ US spent 20 mil a year fighting natives -​ It is commonly thought Ottawa dictated the treaty terms– not true! -​ Did not have the military power to dictate these treaties with 40,000 metis and native people -​ It is true they had the upper hand in the negotiations though. -​ Natives won concessions gov not initially prepared to give -​ Natives demand: Farm instruction, land base (whites would not be allowed to settle), aid in times of crisis (famine and disease), right to fish/hunt -​ In the 7 numbered treaties 1871-77: prairie natives received some of what they wanted -​ Received cash payments, annuities, reserves and schools on reserves. -​ Treaties promised livestock, farm implements and sometimes feed for crops  -​ Treaty 3 natives obtaining 640 acres of land per family -​ Treaty 6 native convinced to provide a medicine chest– aide in times of famine -​ Initially left the west alone, but white people started flooding in -​ Treaty eight: 1899 -​ Different: Individuals or bands could receive stipulated amount of land -​ Could Natives have gotten a better deal? -​ Maybe, if they had exercised more solidarity -​ Some natives were willing to accept less than others. Did the natives understand that they were giving away their land forever? -​ Most scholars and indigenous peoples say, no they did not -​ JR Miller argues that “they did not hold to a concept of property right in a European legal sense… to them, the treaties were… pacts of friendship, peace, and mutual support” not “the abandonment of their rights and interests.” -​ Irene Spry says that they couldn't have fully understood they were ceding their land because they had no concept of actual possession and exchange of real estate. -​ Gerald Friesoen says that some Natives understood the implications of the land transfers better than others -​ One of the treaty three reps, Mawedopenais, “now in concluding this treaty, I take off my glove and give you my hand. I give you my birthright and land and in taking your hand, I hold fast to all promises you have made. Main aims of federal “Indian” policy: Protection and assimilation -​ Features were based on the view that natives had to be sheltered from white exploiters -​ Forbade the sale of alcohol to natives -​ And to curb prostitution of indigenous women, it banned non band members from reserve after nightfall and prohibited women from frequenting bars -​ Also prevented Native land sales -​ Goal of the Act was assimilation -​ Strategies -​ Accomplished through enfranchisement -​ Male indians would become a white man– given the vote and a part of the reserve land as his own, he would have to pay taxes -​ 1880 Amendment Act provided two routes to enfranchisement: -​ Men could graduate from university OR -​ Become literate, farm a portion of reserve land for a three year probationary period and be free of debt and be of good moral character -​ Very few indigenous men chose either route. -​ Most natives resisted, with some success  -​ Ottowa tried to impose an elected chief instead of the hereditary chiefs -​ Tried to assimilate natives by forbidding the cultural practices such as -​ Potlatch: (east coast) gave away large amounts of possessions– this was opposed because it worked against the invocation of Victorian values of accumulation. The practice was officially banned in 1884– but most indigenous peoples ignored the law. In 1885 it was strengthened, but continued to be practiced. The ceremony was never stamped out and eventually enjoyed a comeback -​ Sun/Thirst dances: (Prairies) a pass system was implemented to stop natives from leaving the reserve to go to these dances. In 1895 Ottawa made self-mutilation an indictable offense. Many bands complied by removing the mutilation feature of the dance, but the dance still happened. Residential Schools -​ Boarding schools: on reserves 10-14 -​ Industrial schools: off reserves and catered to student 14-18 -​ Girls were taught domestic science, boys were taught trade -​ Sexual.physical abuse occurred; death rate was very high. More than a quarter of the students died from things such as tuberculosis, diphtheria and whooping cough. -​ Students were forbidden from speaking their own language, and suffered from loneliness and culture shock -​ Many parents resisted or criticized the schools. They simply didn’t send their children to school. -​ Only a minority of Amerindian children actually attended the school -​ Some parents made surprise visits to the school or refused to return them after holiday breaks -​ Complained that their children didn’t learn enough in the classes and spent too much time in the fields and shops. -​ Children sometimes rebelled, escaped… very few actually assimilated. -​ Realizing the industrial schools had failed and were costly to maintain, Ottawa phased them out in early 20 cent. Other schools ran for decades though. Agriculture Fail Ottawa’s record on helping Natives to become farmers bad  -​ In several treaties, Indigenous peoples had persuaded Ottawa to provide the means of farming. -​ Government was slow to provide tools, seed, livestock; reserves often on inferior land; instructors were incompetent. -​ 1888: Hayter Reed, commissioner of Indian Affairs surveyed reserves into individual plots for the natives to farm with hand tools -​ Would pave the way for the eventual break up of the reserves, promote self sufficiency, and instill a european work ethic -​ At a time where white farmers were paving the way for more competent tools, giving the Indigenous hand tools was a recipe for disaster. -​ Livestock was good though: especially w the Kainai Selling Reserves -​ Gov coaxed First Nations to sell parts of their reserves -​ Told them proceeds would be used to fight poverty, pay off debts or develop agriculture -​ Realizing short term gain would mean long term pain, many bands refused to sell. -​ Consequently the 1906 Indian Act was amended to allow gov to immediately advance cash to native groups who agreed to land surrender. -​ Municipalities empowered (1911) to expropriate reserve land (subject to federal approval) for roads and railways. -​ Threated by legislation and badgered by officials, they sold a fifth of their land in the west, the Siksika lost roughly half of their reserve. -​ With less land, they found it harder to provide for themselves -​ An Monopolistic fur trade industry, a decline in game, and the disappearance of the buffalo, liquor, disease, attacks on culture, residential schooling, and agricultural and land policies, all of these meant that by early 1900s, the formerly proud hunters of the prairies were on the defensive and had become demoralized and impoverished wards of the state. Metis in a difficult position -​ Treaty 8 in 1899, many offered the option of taking the treaty as an “indian” or receiving either a land scrip of 240 acres or a money script of 240 dollars. -​ Few took the land because they were committed to a nomadic lifestyle. -​ Consequences to take the money were not at first apparent. As more and more immigrants moved into the west, the metis felt land pressure and encountered more and more prejudice.  -​ Yet, between 1896 and end of WW1 the metis and other natives benefited from rising prices for furs, however; competition from white trappers and sport hunters led to depletion of game and imposition (1910) of conservation measures. -​ The Government then only allowed natives to hunt and trap for subsistence after protests arose that Metis could not support themselves without hunting. 3.​ National policies and the West: land policies, the Mounties, railways and freight rates, land and resource control, and tariffs. squabbles, the Manitoba school controversy, the Laurier-Greenway Compromise. Impact of national policies on West: Two kinds -​ Objective -​ Measurable, more or less verified through careful analysis– based on rationality and the best evidence. -​ Subjective -​ Purely about the effect on thinking/feelings Cornerstone of Ottawa’s early policies for West: Its control of the Prairie land/resources - Land Policies 1905– NWT included SK and AB -​ Ottawa asserted its constitutional right to guide development “for the purposes of the dominion” in this case, administering prairie land to build a transcontinental railway and encourage settlement -​ John A. MacDonald: The federal government must control land and resources in the prairie west -​ The impact of the policy was enormous! -​ Westerners uniformly felt they were being treated like second class citizens. Canadians in the other province had the right to determine their own economic decisions. It felt like they were being treated like a colony. -​ Westerners demanded control of land and resources on the same terms of that enjoyed by other canadians -​ Issue was a major source of major discontent until they finally got what they wanted in 1930. -​ W.L. Morton: argued that West paid an unfair share in nation building that the old parts of the country benefited from. Morton suggested that westerners' subjective belief reflected objective reality. The West DID actually suffer economically from Ottawa’s land and resource policy  -​ Gerald Friesens disagrees -​ Believed that the money they were paid fully compensated for the revenue lost -​ Subjective impact of this policy was not grounded in objective reality because the impact– the actual regionally economical effect was actually negligible. Dominion Lands Act (1872) -​ Provided 160 acres free land to males over 21 and heads of households -​ Women could only if widows, divorcees, or proof of husband abandonment. -​ Must live on land for 3 months of year, cultivate 30 acres and construct a permanent residence. They were given title to homestead if they met these requirements -​ Until 1889, applicants could preempt adjacent quarter section -​ Subjective impact? -​ Men were pleased! Very few complaints and provided means for modest settlers to est themselves on the land -​ OTOH for women, it was a source of grievance starting in the immediate pre WW1 years they carried a campaign called “homestead for women.” -​ Argued that women had the right to homestead -​ Men's reaction was mixed. Some found it threatening– didn’t want them homesteading on the same terms. -​ Others found it to be a sense of justice and democracy. -​ Men knew if their wives could homestead it meant their land could prosper with less cost. -​ Ottawa refused to change the Act. Issues remained a bone of contention well into the 1920s. -​ In Alberta, women did receive the right to homestead after control and land and resources was given to the province in 1930 -​ By then it was too late and a lot of the good land was already settled Objective impact of Dominion Lands Act -​ Made Canada competitive with US in bidding for immigrants -​ 1890s– most good subhuman land in the US was gone and then Canada’s homestead became truly effective -​ Canada’s homestead provisions gave a massive inflow of people coming to the west. -​ From 1901-1921, pop in Can living on the prairies went from 8% to 22% -​ Made possible the peopling of the prairie west in a short period of time -​ Some scholars have argued that the lands act was BAD for that very reason -​ By making it easy for any man to obtain freeland, it resulted in too mich settlement, too quickly in the wrong places by the wrong people. Many of the people who took out homesteads were simply not suited for farming and failed  -​ Others caught up in the rush to grab land did so in areas where agricultural conditions were poor resulting in high social and economic costs -​ According to this line of cost– if the gov had sold the land at market prices instead of giving it away, settlement and development would have been more orderly and more settlers would have been more successful. -​ David C. Jones has shown that the decision of Frank Oliver (interior minister) to open up the dry-belt to settlement– was a debacle. -​ William Pearce argued that the region was simply too dry for farming and should be held as ranching leases. But, when anti-rancher, pro-farmer Oliver opened the floodgate to farmers it went downhill. -​ A decade of drought after 1916 forced thousands off the land -​ Many towns withered or completely disappeared and a handful of ranchers took over the land from thousands of families. -​ Paul Voisey study of Vulcan area demonstrated that the Act encouraged land speculation -​ Became a form of speculation– not a means to promote farming. -​ Lyle Dick argues that the preemption provision of the land act allowed families that settled before 1890 to become successful large-scale farmers. (so it worked!) -​ Obtaining cheap land in amply quantities by transportation routes determined whether or not a farm family succeeded. -​ The rural elite in the areas were often the early arrivals of the district North West Mounted Police (1873-): -​ Did wide range of judicial, civil and political functions -​ Besides driving out whiskey traders, police supervised indigenous affairs, acted as postmen, census takers, customs and relief officers, collected crop reports, provided medical service, performed intelligence work, mediated labour disputes, hired locals to work for the government and even acted as magistrate: tried many of the subjects they arrested (before 1887) -​ Rod McLeod: they were the government in the region. -​ Did not abuse their authority– generally performed their duties because: -​ Had ottawa’s full support (unique american army with Washington) -​ Police, especially the officers, were of high quality. Patronage were considered, this was not enough to let them stay in the force -​ Social class of officers suited them for their roll: upper class eastern canadian stock, well educated and experienced in military affairs -​ They were self confident and sought to exercise power with common sense -​ Enforced minority and indigenous rights because they saw themselves above the prejudices of the masses -​ Gained respect of white public.  -​ Only real difficulty they were met with was their enforcement of prohibition. -​ Fort McLeod Gazette -​ Mounties struggled to keep the west dry, especially when higher up older officers were some of the active rebels. -​ 1896: Laurier Liberals called for dissolvement of the Mounties, but once they were in office they realized how important they were in the West for settlers coming in looking for safety. -​ Subjective impact of mounted police was positive and objective impact was positive due to their service. Native Relations with Mounties -​ Initially Natives were very impressed with the mounties because they: -​ Suppressed Liquor trade -​ Treated natives equally before the law -​ Native testimony against whites counted in court! -​ Because of this treatment, they gained respect for the police -​ Mid-1880s respect began to wane as mounties executed gov order to control native activities/movements (ex. Pass system) -​ Mounties helped keep West relatively bloodless. -​ Fought roughly 7 battles, compared to the US with over 500. -​ Other reasons Canadian frontier quite peaceful -​ Canadian Natives desired peace and were realistic -​ Natives were hungry/sick– in no position to wage war even if they wanted to -​ Canadian settlers less inclined than American counterparts to attack Natives -​ Hana Semek: Canadian settlers brought with them a respect of the Queen’s law unlike the US.​ -​ Social conditions made the Cnd west tamer (eg fewer whites to cause trouble) -​ Paul Sharp: argued that settlement was slower and whites were fewer, which helped with a more peaceful settlement -​ Mounties were seen as a positive to the natives, but it faded as the gov called them to enforce the worst features of Indian Policy. The construction of CPR was cornerstone of national policy Transcontinental railway: Cornerstone of national policy -​ CPR bill gave company: -​ 25 mil on 25 mil acres -​ 11,000 acres of track (worth est 38 mil) -​ Tax exemptions (on company property) for 20 years on the land grant, exemption from duty on construction materials  -​ Monopoly clause: no competing line could be constructed south of the main rail before the year 1900. -​ 15 mil guarantee on company bond -​ Completed under management of William Cornelius Van Horne -​ Nov 1885 last spike put in in Craigellachie -​ Many westerners/others felt terms granted to CPR were excessive and generous -​ Esp unhappy that Ottawa had sanctioned a monopoly -​ In the US private railway barons had to meet in secret to deal with competition. -​ Prairie people (farmers) were unhappy with freight rates as soon as they were released -​ Some freight-rate relief came in 1898 with Crow’s Nest pass Agreement -​ 20% taxation removed -​ Came into effect in 1898 Hope for Further Freight-rate reductions: railway competition arrives -​ 2 former CPR contractors– William Mackenzie and Donald Mann -​ Creates the Canadian Northern Railway (1901) -​ Aligned to the lake head and were building westward from Manitoba -​ Reliant on Manitoba loan guarantees– but agreed to set freight-rates even lower that those under the Crows nest Pass agreement -​ 1903– Grand Trunk Pacific railway arrives -​ Two new upstarts were racing to the pacific coast intent on building their own transcontinentals -​ Both railways received assistance from federal government -​ Altogether, prov and Ottawa provide 215 mil worth of loans and loan guarantees between 1093-1915 for the railways (equiv to billions today) -​ 1915 Canada had three major railways stretching across the west to the coast and some 55,000 km worth of track -​ Canadians glad about the railway development– demanded new branch lines, and were upset that assistance was minimal -​ Farmers were angry that railways spent little on shipping facilities and rolling stock– did everything possible to avoid compensating farmers for livestock killed by trains -​ Further, tardiness in selecting land grants kapt good land off the market, forcing new settlers to settle further away from towns and services -​ Westerners became more and more upset ab freight-rates -​ Arrival of the new two rails did not reduce rate as much as they had hoped -​ Complained that railway rates were higher in the west then in the east (they were) -​ Galling was that federal regulator defended the rate structures as “fair discrimination”  -​ They argued that bc comp among railways and other carriers drive rates in those regions down to uneconomic levels and because they had to operate money losing stuff in the rockies– bc of this rates had to be higher to make the whole system economic -​ This policy of “fair discrimination” was argued because it opened up the west and they were major beneficiaries– but civics argued that the east was equally just as much of a beneficiary -​ Federal railway policy had a major subjective impact on the west– festering regional grievance -​ Westerners were angry about the CPR terms and esp about Freight-rates Did the government's railway policies have a negative economic impact on the West? -​ John Dales (econ historian): Westerners/Canadians paid excessive subsides to CPR -​ Peter George: Terms of CPR contract were more generous than they needed to be to ensure the companies profitability -​ CPR’s control of land left many districts unsettled– produced dispersed population patterns that necessitated more roads and schools that would otherwise have been needed. -​ Westerners’ crits of gov handouts/loans prescient -​ After the war, the two newer companies went bankrupt -​ Ottawa went seriously in debt that took forever for the taxpayers to pay back -​ T.D. Regher contends freight-rate discrimination retarded western economic growth– made it expensive to ship to market -​ But when prairie rates compared to rates in American west Canadian rates were considered reasonable/favourable -​ Crow rates were the envy of many american farmers -​ Alvin Finkel and Margaret Conrad: “prairie wheat farmers emerged as highly competitive players on the market” -​ Western canadian freight-rates were not excessively high and did not harm economy -​ By establishing low freight charges on eastern bound grain– they denied farming in the east because it was cheaper to bring it in from the west. -​ Impact of railways on BC slight -​ Refuting commonly held view that CPR integrated BC economy– Robert McDonald -​ If it DID have an impact it was contributing to racism. -​ Bringing in chinese coolies resulted in a series of head taxes imposed in 1885 on the chinese Westerners and tariffs -​ Farmers: -​ Resented inflated prices for tariff-protected goods, while selling in unprotected intl market -​ In populus fashion they viewed the tariff as a “special privilege” that benefitted rich manufacturers at the expense of the common people -​ Arguing tariff encouraged formation of monopolies— fosters uneconomic development, that it was a costly and inefficient means of deriving gov revenue. -​ Charged that it benefitted the east at the expense of the west -​ British COlumbians also dislike the tariff -​ Didn’t like paying high prices to benefit the easter counterparts -​ Obtained little benefit from the tariffs -​ Like railway policy and land/resource policy, tariffs fostered sense of injustice -​ Major impotence to the creation of the independent farmer political movement after the great war. Objective impact of tariffs? -​ Nationalist historians: tariffs created an independent nation -​ w/out govs west settlement– canada might have become an economic/political colony of the USA -​ Western Historians: -​ David Bercuson: ill effects of tariffs abound by inhibition north-south tariffs retared western econ development -​ Flappily refuted by econ Ken Norrie -​ Norrie claims that the west failed to industrialize bc of tiny domestic market and absence of nearby export markets (not because of tariffs) -​ Said that industrial landscape was the result of natural economic forces– not gov policy such as tariff -​ The west could only become a major industrial player if the gov had poured massive amounts of money into the region -​ HOWEVER: fails to take into account the purchasing power of the west, and the tariffs regional effect of channeling money into the pockets of the east The exact objective impact of tariff remains a matter of debate. Paradoxically it's easy to delineate the subject of national policies. Overall, Subjective effect of many national policies -​ Created a sense amongst westerners that the west was not getting its due because of ont and quebec Why Did Many Metis Leave Red River in the 1870s? -​ Promised security of tenure of their river lots and 1.4 mil acres for their children, yet a majority left in the 1870s– why? -​ Government policy? -​ Other reasons? -​ D.N. Sprague’s view -​ Metis swindled out of their land by government conspiracy -​ Bc of amendments of the Manitoba Act, applications for the river lots were usually rejects because the metis couldn’t meet their new and unreasonable criteria for proving occupancy -​ Thus, Metis were forced to move on and look elsewhere for land and livelihood -​ Gerhard Ens’ view: -​ Involvement in buffalo rouge trade– since they were scarce around Red River, the Metis relocated further west to the buffalo wintering sites -​ Concedes racisms of settlers from Ontario had the effect of pushing some metis out of Manitoba -​ Maintains that those who wanted to stay on the land they had occupied in 1870 received title for their lots if they properly applied for it. -​ Both sides are partially right? -​ Buffalo definitely had a reason, they were disappearing -​ Gov policy made it unnecessarily difficult to prove ownership of their lots -​ Little evidence of a conspiracy! Winnipeg: Growing/dynamic city -​ 1891– pop reaches 153,000 people -​ 112k lived in rural areas of manitoba. -​ Winnipeg was the seat of provincial government and gateway to the west -​ In order to maintain control, they had to have access to the CPR, however, the railway had already decided to bypass winnipeg and pass the red river elsewhere: i.e. Selkirk -​ By lobbying furiously, and constructing a bridge across the river at the cities expense and offering the railway a lot of money, Winnipeg convinces the railway to come into the city, thus ensuring their future -​ Becomes the distribution hub of much of the west -​ Opening of the Grain Exchange in 1887 made Winnipeg the grain buying and selling centre of the prairies. -​ Not content with these achievements, the winnipeg business elite worked to make themselves the wholesaling crown of the west  -​ Winnipeg elite convinced CPR to establish railway rates that gave Winnipeg competitive advantage in wholesaling -​ Having acquired the grain exchange by early 1890s, it asserted grain control over the entire prairie west. -​ As winnipeg was rising, the provincial government headed by mised blood enlgish premier John Norquay Controversy of border with Ontario -​ Oliver Mowat (Premier of Ontario) felt like lake of the Woods was Ontarios, HOWEVER, Norquay AND John A Macdonald believed it to be part of manitoba. -​ Supported b because… -​ 1884 judicial committee of privy council ruled in Ontario’s favour– although Macdonald resisted, after a second appeal to the council he gave way in 1889 Manitobans mad about CPR monopoly -​ Norquay gov in 1880s chartered several railways to build lines to the american border -​ Ottawa (and John A Machdonal) defended the CPR monopoly and disallowed the provincial charters -​ Leads to the formation in 1883 of the Farmers Protective Union of Manitoba -​ Demanded that the CPR monopoly be ended -​ The a railway to the HBC be constructed -​ That manitoba be given control over its land and resources -​ And that tariffs be lowered. -​ 1884 union had locals in Manitoba's main settlements -​ Rapidly lost support however when members began suspecting that the protective union had links to the liberal party -​ When one leader suggested that Manitoba should leave Canada, it was too radical for most members. -​ Public dissatisfaction over CPR continued to build -​ 1887 Norquay defies Ottawa and builds a railway to US border as a public work -​ Enraged by fellow party member, PM Macdonald spread rumours about financial irregularity in Manitoba government -​ Unable to survive the accusations, Norquay resigns -​ 1887 Thomas Greenway and liberals form Manitoba Government Another Railway -​ Public pressure prompted Macdonald to buy out CPR Monopoly -​ Greenway government gave the contract to complete the railway that Norquay had begun to an American company the Northern pacific railway  -​ This decision split the cabinet and disappointed local interest that had supported greenway in hopes of getting the contract -​ Widely suggested they award the contract in exchange for a bribe. -​ Once it began operations, the CPR matched or beat the new competitors freight rates -​ It seems the government's goal of lowering freight rates has been achieved. -​ 1890 the two companies had to agreed not to engage in a freight rate war -​ And the long term benefits of the railways improved slightly New Political Force: Patrons of Industry -​ American farm organization that spread into ON before moving to Man in 1891 later into other parts of the Canadian Prairies -​ Calling for reduction in Freight-rates and tariff, they ran individual political candidates. -​ Wins a few federal seats in late 1890s -​ Laurier liberal gov co-opted the patrons with the 1897 Crows Nest Pass Agreement and with modest reductions in the tariff in the 1897 budget. -​ These pro farmer measures convinced many farmers they no longer needed the patrons of industry because the government in Ottawa was responding to their demands -​ Manitoba patrons were soon racked with internal dissension. -​ Patrons of Industry across the west faded into oblivion– but they had one enduring and important success. -​ 1899 James Douglas, member of parliament who had been elected with patron support, convinced the Laurier govt to establish a royal commission on grain. -​ Out of this came the Manitoba Grain Act of 1900s -​ Provided for fairer grain grading practices and right for farmers to ship their grain market by train rather than having to sell to grain elevator companies. -​ Manitoba grain act would be improved upon and superseded by more effective legislation -​ Beginning of reform of the grain trade. School Controversy (before the Patrons in Manitoba) -​ 1870 Act had guaranteed langue and education rights for both french speaking catholics and english=ish speaking protestants -​ In the following years, many english protestant settlers form Ontario, while many french catholic Metis had departed from Manitba and very few french canadians took their place -​ Mid 1880s french speaking catholic manitobans had become a small minority in avast english protestant speaking sea and their promised education rights came under fire. -​ 1887, after protestant parents had sent their children to the local catholic school, due to overpopulation, their child told them she wanted to become a nun -​ Parents begin pulling children out of catholic school  -​ James Smart brings the issue to the government's attention -​ D’Alton McCarthy, anti-catholic, anti-french MP attacked catholic schools and the French language as threats to national greatness. (In Portage la Prairie) -​ PAG Joseph Martin (who followed McCarthy on the platform) spoke up and promised to abolish the dual school system and French as an official language of the province. -​ Many believe McCarthy’s speech led to the school endings -​ But others believe it was before he came into the province -​ McCarthy may have prompted the liberals to eliminate french lang rights since opposition to french had been the main component of his speech -​ Many liberals pressed ahead with education and language legislation because of significant anti catholic and French public pressure in the province. -​ Another reason! Gov wanted to divert attention away from the scandal over the Northern Pacific railway contract (Mentioned earlier) -​ Education legislation passed. Manitoba School Act of 1890 created a non-sectarian school system (public school) that alone would be provincially funded -​ Separate schools could continue to exist, but would receive no public grants and, crucially, parents sending their children to such schools would still have to pay taxes for the public schools -​ In addition, the government abolished French as an official language of the courts and legislature. -​ Case went through dif levels of court before the highest court of the PO the privy council in London declared that although the MSA was legal, Ottawa also had the right to intervene and restore catholic school rights -​ This is exactly what the federal politics did not want to hear– it put the ball right back in their court (they HAVE to make the decision) -​ Federal conservative gov finally decided in 1896 to introduce remedial legislation to reinstate catholic school rights in Manitoba -​ It looked like the Catholics had won their case! -​ Unfortunately… -​ Parliament dissolved and an election was held before the bill passes so it was not implemented “Sunny Way” - Laurier-Greenway Compromise -​ Liberal leader Wilfrid Laurier promised that if he was elected he would negotiate with Man premier Greenway: he said he would sit down and figure out a decision that would be accepted by all parties. Promised to go the “sunny way” -​ Partly because lib had abandoned the free trade stance and also because Quebec wanted a fellow Francophone as PM– this meant the Laurier now had his chance to attempt his “Sunny Way” with premier Greenway -​ The Laurier-Greenway compromise of 1896  -​ maintained the principle of a single public school system -​ provided catholic teachers where there were 40 catholic students in an urban school and 10 catholic students in a rural school. -​ Moreover, under this agreement, at the request of 10 catholic families– a minister of the faith could conduct religious instruction in a school during the last half hour of the day. -​ Where numbers warranted, bilingual instruction would be provided. -​ Catholic and protestant, french and english generally regarded the laurier-greenway compromise as a tolerable deal -​ Even the pope urged catholics to accept it as a positive step towards the ultimate restoration of the catholic rights (Group work) Red river exodus summary -​ Gov was unreasonable -​ Buffalo -​ Leaving for the buffalo, but then also just not having to deal w the gov School summary -​ Large demographic change– french metis leave and protestant english ontarians come into Manitoba -​ Protestant girl goes to catholic school, says she wants to be a nun, and so begins demands for removal of catholic and french schooling from parents -​ Manitoba school act is passed, it's not great, they almost reinstate catholic schools but bill isn't passed due to parliament dissolvement, and then the Laurier-Greenway compromise is passed– which is seen as tolerable for both groups. 4.​ The North-West Rebellion, what led to it, and who was to blame for it. Brewing discontent in North West -​ Some Metis who had left Red River settled in Saskatchewan; concerned about land security, -​ they petitioned Ottawa for survey to recognize their river lots in early 1880s -​ Because an existing survey of St. Laurent some Metis feared their long standing river lots might not be recognized. -​ White settlers in the area were anxious– upset about the slowness of the land registry system and the failure of the CPR to pass through their region– no way to get grain to market.  -​ Along w english mixed bloods and french metis, white settlers resented their lack of political rep -​ NW territories act of 1875 had provided for a growing members -​ 5 elected members and no federal rep whatsoever -​ To address this, land railways, land registration and democracy– meeting of whites and metis was held in spring of 1884 and a later meeting of french speaking and english speaking mixed bloods decided to send for Louis Riel! -​ Within a week he was on his way to help his people again -​ However, this was not the riel of the Red River Resistance– having been forced to stay out until 1875, riel had suffered bouts of mental illness -​ Felt he had a divine mission to prepare the way for the second coming of Jesus by making the Bishop of Montreal the new pope -​ Also believed the NW would become a religion haven for the oppressed of the world -​ At first, he and his followers conducted themselves peaceably -​ Seeking to rep all persons in the NW– Ameriindians, whites and mixed bloods– dec 1884 they sent Ottawa a pet that demanded better treatment of the amerindians, land rights for the metis (including a land grant), responsible government and provincial status. -​ As well, demanded federal political rep, tariff reductions, and a railway to Hudson’s Bay -​ McDonalds govt says they’ll investigate western problems -​ Also failed to explicitly to mention metis concerns -​ Barely acknowledges their issues. -​ Now there was a police force in the NW as well! Moreover, Riel soon lost support of the local white settlers, english speaking mixed bloods and even the catholic church because of his extreme beliefs and actions -​ Riel demanded the surrender of the NWMP detachment at fort carlton and the evac of all police from the area North West Rebellion (1885) -​ March 18 1885, riel repeated his old strategy by declaring a provisional government. -​ Subsequently, march 26 about 100 settlers vol and police confronted 200 metis at duck lake​ -​ Battle broke out and metis emerge victorious -​ Advantage bc they were good marksmen due to hunting buffalo -​ Two bands of cree warriors in an UNRELATED protess about their treatment by Ottawa surrounded battleford and at frog lake killed nine people– including a hated indian agent -​ Ottawa quickly responded by sending over 3000 troops under command of General Fredrick Middleton  -​ Joined by 2000 vol and the mounties and fought a three pronged attack from Qu’Apple, swift current, and calgary against first nation and metis -​ Several battles waged in april and may including at Fish Creek where Middleton and the Metis fought to a draw -​ Cut Knife hill where poundmaker cree prevailed over Colonel William Otter group -​ Frenchman’s Butte and cree fought until stalemate -​ May 12 battle ends in Batoche and May 15 Riel surrenders What/who caused the rebellion? Thomas Flanagan -​ Riels personal demand for compensation from the government for wrongs done to him (one reason he came back to Canada) – OTW a personal agenda to fulfill -​ Metis may be to blame for rebellion– did the gov response, or lack thereof, justify an open rebellion? -​ Did that have no other choice of action? -​ Was it wise of them to take that action? -​ Flanagan notes that the gov was working on a resolution for the Metis (though they didn’t know this), and retains that the metis were too rash and impatient -​ Also believes that Riels unorthodox millenarian religion beliefs was attractive to some of the Metis because when a group of people feel really oppressed, they tend to latch onto a religious agenda -​ Metis experiences with the land question in Manitoba contributed to a sense of suspicion on their part– felt they had been swindled out of land there, and feared the same scenario would happen in the NW -​ Gerald Frieson -​ Places blame solely on the shoulders of the federal government -​ Unnecessary gov delays in dealing with Metis grievances were largely responsible for the Metis insurgence D.N. Sprague -​ Argues Ottawa deliberately provokes Riel into rebellion to justify loaning more money to the CPR -​ Indisputable that it used riel to bail out the CPR– there is no concrete evidence that MacDonald planned to ignore the Metis so they were rise up, give them an excuse to crush them and raise the railway Rebellion ended Cree diplomatic movements to improve treaty terms -​ Goal was to unite prairie natives and force Ottawa to improve treaty terms  -​ During Rebellion, Ottawa had arrested movements leaders include Big Bear on pretense they had incited Cree to Rebel, But big Bear had tried to prevent his warriors from fighting Riel’s Fate -​ Captured and sentenced to be hung -​ Cabinet had the power to commute his sentence -​ MacDonald decides to appease Ontario, who were calling for Riel’s head, and denies the cabinet. -​ Nov 16 1885 Riel climbed the gallows and was hung