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Chapter 1: method Structuralism : ( introspection) 5 Major perspectives in...

Chapter 1: method Structuralism : ( introspection) 5 Major perspectives in psych. - led by Wundt & Tichener - neuroscience : - how humans func. - they created a periodic table of biologically psychology behavioural - neurons & neuronal "psychology should ONLY focus > - their idea was neuroscience comm. on identifying these basic elements * On ↳ how our -genetics I brain B nervous immediate experience system shape epigenetics one's reaction to our behaviour observing lights, body-mind-brain > - ex. - sounds , colours - psychological change from trauma psychodynamic-unconscious psychologic Functionalism : ↳ -led by William james , influenced by processes Charles darwin Freud. - ex thoughts memories ,. , higher mental developed > - desires aren't processes we overtime be of adaptive value aware of of mindthe id identify states ↳ ex ego , superego , -. functions they perform for humans - emphasized how early > - William wanted to find more & childhood experiences shape the function they serve adult selves > - charles wanted to see how mental - psychological intervention illnesses were passed down as treatment Founding > - women in psychology washburn : 1st woman to receive a PhD in psych. ↳ came from her work in animal cognition > - calkins : 1s female president of APA > - studied memory - horney : studied social # cultural factors behind personality > - pushed back on Freud's sexist ideas phipps dark works racial > - : on differences Supreme Court ~ decision to USA schools led to desegregate > - hollingsworth : studied gifted children ↳arguedthat environmentplayed a big role in intellige a set 5 Major pers. Cont behavioural believed the should be things they ↳ perspective : only material in psychology can - observe/see (no thoughts , emotions , mental health) Watson. - no study of higer mental process - we were like pigeons mice # & control of human behaviour psychology is about prediction - all human behaviour explained by factors external (stimulus-ree) - ↳ how internal Cognitive : thoughts & feelings influence one's behaviour - perceptionI attention , language decision making) problem importance of memory - , , solving 1950/1960 psychologists found vigorous ways to student mental processes - - ↳ humanistic: emphasized unique qualities of humans - > - free will , potential for personal growth - studied love, greif , caring - most important thing to humans are relationships , connection I love ↳ clinical psychology : - viewpoint of a health professional - clinical perspectives - diagnosis B treatment of psychological problems Scientific Skepticism - keep an open mind to all claims > - accept only claims that have been subjected to stringent scientific tests > - do not accept claims based on only one authority alone - be willing mind due to evidence to change your new ↳ Signs of pseudoscience exaggerated claims - - overreliance on anecdotes ("i know a person who... ") - absence of connectivity to other research-> contradiction - lack of review I replication peer - lack of self-correction of words" psychobabble "Sciency - > use or jargon - - talk of "proof" instead of evidence 6 principles of scientific thinking are they presenting only one explanations out potential explanations hypotheses other - ruling rival > - what are correlate , but we cannot say for certain 2 variables causes the other ex ice cream & - correlation us. Causation - that one.. Crime rates - falsifiability > - able to be disproven must be repeated replicability - -- - extraordinary claims - occams razor/parsimony > - istheirclaim - simpliest explanationas Steps in research process theories : explanations for existing ↳ - true facts - design the ↳ ex. why people divorce study ↳ hypotheses prediction : stated in a way that allows - collect data it to be tested , deprived from theories to - analyze * test theories report > -. the less ex people to live together before the likely they to marriage , more are get divorced ↳ operationalize : make it into specific, testable procedure that can be measured B Observed Research methods Correlation ↑ so -naturalistic : Observing in natural setting positive : as one v. does the other case studies : study of individual or group - T the surveysI questionnaires neg : as one v -. other ↑ independent ] variable : cause observe impact zero. no systematic relation dependent variable effect : on both random assignment participants : have equal chance of being assigned to either group , avoid confounds/extraneous variables influence outcome Descriptive Statistics ↳ mean- average middle if odd two middle points average irem ↳ median - > smallest to largest, # in , ↳ mode-off that appears most Chapter 2: Neuronal Components : axons : "Fails" of neuron. transmits messages away from cell body dendrites : "branchlike" receives messages from neighbouring cells n glial cells : structural support transports nutrients (in) transports , , waste lout), mediating immune response myelination formation of : myelin sheath ↳ explained ↳ futher pg 3. glial cells that wrap around axon, , providing protective coating & increasing the velocity synapses a dentritesaxonmyn of electrical impulse ~ a ↳ won't messages be communicated wo myelin > - eg if we. didn't insulate our pipes, they would freeze synapses tiny fluid-filled space between : neurons including a synaptic cleft parts presynaptic part (before synapse) located on an axon. ↳ 2 : : postsynaptic part (after synapse) located on a dentrite/soma : they permit to signal ↳ a neuron pass an electrical or chemical to another neuron ↳ dendrites of nearby neurons pick up the neurotransmitters synaptic vesicles : produced by Stoma they contain neurotransmitters (chem ,. mess. ) vesicles process synaptic : in Stoma ↓ go down ↓ bubbles NT's are axon > - bubbles - > bubble bursts in ↓ axon terminal release to chemical releases - > synaptic cleft -> neighbouring clendrites suck up the chemical Stoma : cell body , nucleus neurons : Communication Neuronal transmission now neurons fire : neurons are on or off (fire or not speed ↳ they are all the same # of during > - intensity is determined by signals it fires time period (not size - trigger individual neuron > will - fire ↳ inhibit individual neuron - won't fire resting potential : when there are no NT's acting on the neuron neuron resting : -neg charge not sending - a message > - inside is slightly more neg - charged inside than outside ↳ if another neuron -neg charge , the charge Will start to pings the change all the outside + pos cells rapidly inside the -neg , go neuron now can send a message action potential : neurons sending messages - electrical impulses travel down axon , triggering the release of NT's > - simulation causes cell membrane to briefly open + pos charged particles flow rapidly into the axon * then back out quickly absolute & relative absolute : : "Coul down" of milliseconds after sends refractory periods a neuron a message (time to "reload" relative : after a neuron sends a message , after the absolute r. p. it needs a strong charge to send a message neurotransmitters : "Messengers" > - chemical carriers that facilitate communication between neurons > - only binda certain "locks" (dopamine receptors have their chemicals own spots to bind) lingering ↑ ↳ transmission can be halted by reuptake by presynaptic neuron 2 types of NT's : excitatory triggering the neuron to fire : inhibitory "block" the neuron from firing : Types of NT's exhibitory -acetylcholine- voluntary : > movement glutamate-form - a memory * pleasure B award dopamine - pathway inhibitory : -GABA- moderates behaviours agression , depression , suicide, etc - Serotonin-> sleep eating , mood , pain - role in , ↳ selective serotonin reuptake ihibitors (SSRI's] - drugs used to block the reuptake of Serotonin , leaving more serotonin flowing * dopamine analegic effects : endorphins released : when your body senses a threat ↳ helps you not feel pain for a period of time opiates flooding your brain with a bunch of endorphins creating : a pain-free euphoric moment myelination /6m-ly) takes place in critical periods in development : rapid language development > - ↳ eg if a baby is neglected. > - language will not > - clevel op you don't learn things in that stage are harder to learn ↳ newborns forming millions of connections are synaptic haphazardly the brain to it efficient removing pruning reorganizing make : more , unnecessary synaptic (age 3 > - improved grammar) Brain Mapping Methods a computer-produced EEG img. - fMRI magnetic field to scan uses a provide detailed view of brain activity - : a on moment-by-moment basis a -transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) newest type : of scan , produces a momentary disruption in an area of the brain , allowing researchers to see what activities are controlled by that treat area , has potential to some psychological disorders - PET scan : displays the functioning of the brain & any given moment Lobes of the brain * cerebral movementfromePrevi cortex frontal lobe : planning (execution) voluntary Includes prefrontal ↳ cortex to parietal lobe : touch , pain prefront temporal lobe : ability to hear lobe occipital lobe : ability to see I Cont. frontal lobe : - Voluntary movement working temporal lobe : processing auditory - - memory. - excutive function (planning , monitoring information mood regulation of emotions a language comprehensiv - - characteristics acquisition of memories - personality - -face I object recognition - motivation if damaged : -behavioural problems if damaged : - distrubance in selective see depression attention to what - we - loss of strength in muscles hear lobe : -somatosensory difficulty learning - parietal cortex touch , information pain , i temperature retaining new - -relays Visual & tactile inf. to impaired factual - allow for Spatial B Visual long-term memory occipital lobe : visual perception processing - if damaged : - numbness # impairs sensation Center on the opposite side of the if damaged : - visual hallucinations body - blindness due to holes difficulty identifying sensations in the visual - map on locations & type (heat pain , cold, etc.) the surface of the , visual cortex cerebrum : most developed area of the brain ↳ two cerebral hemispheres - connected by the corpus callosum ↳ communication Coordination between hemispheres left hemisphere : controls right side. Verbal (thinking , reading , speaking right hemisphere : controls left side. non-verbal( patterns , drawings music , Split ↳ Brain Surgery severed corpus callosum ↳ after surgery , the two hemispheres do not exchange information as efficiently do what surgery effects : only can they are described to do can't aid originally , they each other ↳ cannot relearn The limbic system ↳ part of the brain that controls eating , aggression , reproduction ↳ includes amygdala (emotion /fear center) B hippocampus (memory Neuroplasticity > - the Drain is due to constantly changing experiences - other parts of the brain will make up for the damaged part(s) of the brain neurogenesis : creation of new neurons ↳ even as we age theres new neuron growth creation of between synaptogenesis : new web of synaptic connections neurons creating new circuits Central & Peripheral nervous system the nervous system brainB neurons peripheral nervous system central nervous system but brain brain & Spina everything spinal cord cord Somatic autonomic (automatic) division division brain Spinal, ord croluntary (involuntary controls of the control of voluntary parts body that behaviour transmits messages function involuntary movements between the brain sympathetic B1podbrain (fight, flight, fleel parasympatheta Reflexes Sensory (afferent) : pain motor (efferent) : brain-body interneurons : connects sensory Is motor carries messages between the two , Hormones ↳ endocrine system ↳ chemical messengers in the bloodstream ↳ negative feedback system > - pulsatile release by endocrine glands important components/glands : pituitary "master glands" : hypothalamus controls release : of hormones in pituitary gland , controls water balance , sleep, temp , appetite , BP thyroid regulates : metabolism adrenal : regulates blood pressure , metabolism Chapter 3 Difference between sensation & perception not THE reality sensation : sensory organs receiving data , which gets sent to the brain brain takes informationI bases it something you already experienced perception : on ↳> not ↳ ↳ completely different, they work together. Constructionprocesifferent - the have , the will be used more experience you more perception stimulus energy > - sensory receptors > - neural impulses - > brain lights , sound , eyes , nose ears language ur brain visual , smell , etc. understands receptors x sensation perception to prone Top-downB bottom up processing - based on experiences t error top-down processing (perception) : is this something I've seen before > - data bottom-up processing (sensation) what: is this that im seeing? driven > - no previous knowledge the experiences have the more top-down processing will happen more you , Transduction ↳ the process by which they convert all of their different wavelengths sound , brain of light, etc. into neural impulses to be processed by the translated psychophysics study : of how physical stimuli are into pyschological experience Absolute thresholds& noticeable differences absolute threshold : the lowest level of of a stimulus that we can detect intensity half of the time ↳ the amount of intensity that detect your able to ↳ of eg. Smelling a single drop perfume in a 3 room house ↳ eg. hearing a clock tic 20 feet away noticeable difference: how increase the just much can someone or decrease Stimulus change in a temperature house before notice? in your you ↳ diff has experience everyone a. Signal detection theory - absolute thresholds hold under ideal conditions (ex. no other noise present) Signal-to-noise ratio : harder to detect a signal clearly as background noise increases Weber's Law (just noticeable difference) ↳ the stronger the stimulus the , bigger the change intensity needed for us to notice it > - 50- add lbs - will ex. someone lifting 5 more notice 300 - add 5 more lbs- > Someone lifting likely won't notice Sensory Adaptation ↳ prolonged/regular exposure to unchanging stimuli /ex. car alarm) that we accustom to ↳ decline in sensitivity to stimuli is due to the inability of sensory nerve receptors to fire off messages to the brain indefinitely ↳ to not overreact Lo cells most responsive to changes in stimulation receptor are ↳ ex clothes sound of. , ac , hum of fridge Psychological Influences on perception ↳ motivation > context - cues ↳ previous experiences Gestalt Laws of organization ↳ set forth of German early principles by a group psychologists in 1900's that determine how we organize information into meaningful wholes ex-figure ground - similarity - proximity - continuity - closure Parts of the eyeB their functions cornea : transparent "Window" that bends the light to focus the the back of the eye image on lens : in curvature to "fine-tune" the visual image changes process : known as accommodation ↳ glasses change the way light enters the eye controls how iris : coloured ring of muscle surrounding the pupil much light enters the eye : how pupil opening : in center of iris that helps regulate much light passes into retina retina : neural tissue lining back surface of the eye, absorbs light , processes images B sends back information to the brain forea : is the Central part of retina , responsible for visual acuity. light hits two types of the retina rods & Cones sense receptors on Two types of visual receptors rods : longB narrow sensitive to dim light, responsible for , night peripheral vision cones : shaped like small comes , responsible for daylight color vision & visual acrity Components of colour reflected brightness : the amount of light emitted from or by an object hue : visual experience , related to the wavelength of light 2 red ex. bananas are yellow , apples a re saturation: of color of purity , complexity light waves ↳ not ex. pink us. Pastel pink Trichromatic theory of color vision ↳3 kinds of cones on our retina , each of them respond to a specific wavelength - if I malfunctions , we have color blindness ↳ different depending on which come malfunctions red-green : causes a decrease in sensitivity to green or red wavelengths blue-yellow : causes a decreases in sensitivity to blue light. ↳ people have difficulties with blueB green or redB yellow Opponent-Process theory receptors that work in pairs , working in opposition black & white pairs :- - blue - yellow - red green - brain of can only registor the presence of one color a pair at a time burned in only the opposite blank of , see on a piece paper Perpetual Constancy ability of observer to familiar objects an percieve as unchanging even when observed from various angles , distances , etc ↳ a door eg. Chapter 4 Stages of sleep-NON-REM Stage NI the stage of transition : between wakefulness B sleep that is characterized by relatively rapid low-voltage , brain waves stage N2: characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern & momentary interruptions of sharp , spiky waves called sleep spindles Stage N3 : brain waves become slower with an appearance of higher peaks I lower valleys in the wave pattern stage N4 : deepest stage of sleep where people are least responsive to outside stimuli is the wave slowerI more regular patterns are rem Stage Rapid eye movement (REM) characterized by "paralysis" : of the body, but increased B irregular HR , increases in BP B ↳ paradoxical breathing rate , erections in males , I rapid eye movement sleep ↳ 20 % of adults most dreaming occurs during REM sleeping time REM plays Vital role in learning , memory · · rebound effect when allowed to rest undisturbed after being deprived of in REM vivid detailed dreams spend time - REM sleep , more Why do we need sleep ? evolution conservation : of energy restoration/repair sleep : restores I replenishes our brainsIs bodies memory sleep plays : a crucial role in memory consolidation , learning & development : sleep is essential to brain development physical growth of children sleep deprivation ↳ study with rats show that sleep deprivation (REM) resulted in them dying > - studies with humans show no permanent effects. (Since we take it back > - but it does lead to weariness irritability , lack of emotion regulation , lack of concentration I decline in logical reasoning B creativity , > - weariness * lower performance in mental/physical tasks can be particulary dangerous when doing things like driving or in certain professions like medical doctors sleep disorders insomnia : difficulty falling/staying asleep affects3 of all people > - could be due to a stressful situation or have no obvious cause sleep apnea : person stops breathing in their sleep , they don't know it happens. they feel exhausted in the morning gasps for , air. > - could be due to underlying health issues (obesity , structural problems in your airway terrors : most common children sudden night in , awakenings from REM-sleep that include extreme fear , panic, strong physiological arousal ↳ their eyes back are open , screaming , but they are asleep they go to bed narcolepsy : uncontrollable sleeping that occurs for short periods while awake· they go directly from wakefulness to REM sleep > - causes not clear but be genetic may a component ↳ can be effectively treated with medication Sleepwalking/sleep talking get up : & Walk around while in a state of sleep have , a around range consciousness of world them - causes multifaceted exacerbated are , by stress , sleep deprivation > children - more common in be associated , may with sleep terrors to sleep paralysis inability: speak or performing any other voluntary muscle movements during sleep ↳ vivid visual physical often experience imagery or sensations , such as of suffocation an experience ↳ can be very distressing , as they are aware of their inability to more B their inability to tell others > - often occurs during the hypnagogic state > - pre-sleep ↳ cause unknown but associated with other sleep disorders , , disorders narcolepsy particulary anxiety generally. Nightmares vs. night terrors nightmares : bad dreams you wake up from I can remember night terrors : Can't remember , don't wake up from it Wish fulfillment theory (Freud - dreams to the unconscious are a guide , representing unconscious wishes of dreamers manifest content of dreams ↳ content as you remember it - telling what your dream was about freud argued that those are symbolic representations of some other thing ties it to sexual aggressive , deep , dark desires latent content of dreams ↳ "real" meaning behind it connects to eg. your teeth falling out but it losing something valuable to you the latent meaning only interpreter/analyst skilled can uncover Dream-for-survival theory > - dreams are us reprocessing a reconsidering the activities we did during the day > - dreams represent concerns about our lives , illustrating our uncertainties, indecisions, ideas , I desires > - dreams to focus B consolidate permit people on memories Activation-synthesis theory (Hobson) the brain produces random electrical energy during REM that stimulates memories in various parts of the brain , which put a story together hobson does not entirely reject freud's views he that argues the scenario a dreamer produces is not random , but is a clue to the dreamer's fears emotions , I Concerns , -random bursts of energy -> something meaningful Psychactive drugs > - substances legal or illegal that influence a person's emotions , perceptions ↓ behaviours & ways psychoactive drugs are classified brain body leg antidepressants ↳ their common effects in the. , sleep aids) > - likelihood to cause addiction (high to low > - their chemical statue ↳ by governments in terms of legal or illegal , prescription vs. available without Defining addiction ↳ the word "addiction" is often used to referto behaviour that is any of control in out some way leg , elung use , gambling , eating ↳ addiction used to the of withdrawal is also explain experience when a substance or behaviour is stopped. > - dependence > - leg. "I must be addicted to coffee , or i get a headache when i don't have my cup in the morning) > - however withdrawal , experiencing enjoyment or going through do not in themselves has addiction person a an mean one way of describing addiction is the of the 4 C's presence -craving loss - of of control amount or frequency of use but to use - > the drug - compulsion nothing else matters use despite consequences - Addiction vs. dependence dependence addiction is exhibited by physical symtoms while manifests · as a , combination of physical , mental , behavioural symptoms ↳ a person who is addicted is also dependent , but a person who is dependent on a drug may not be addicted to it ↳ physical dependence is usually to addiction precursor a Drug use influences biological factors : body weight , physiology social influences : peer influence , cultural attitudes, urban/rural environment factors psychological : motivation to use , expectation of effects , depression , anxiety , stress How psychoactive drugs work ↳ most psychoactive drugs alter NT's activity , with cliff. drugs altering diff. NT's ↳ bind to eg. opiates subtypes of endorphin receptors L bind influence synthesis release deactivation of NT'S to pre- and post synaptic receptors , , , Lo virtually all abused drugs increase activity in the mesolimbic dopamine (reward) pathway (some use serotonin pathways > - large , rapid increases in dopamine along this pathway lead to reinforcing effects of drugs Stimulus drugs ↳ that increase central nervous system activity ↳ eg. Caffeine, nicotine , ritalin cocaine , amphetamines , lower closes : feelings of excitement alertness , increased energy increased BP & HR , talkativeness