Psychology PDF

Psychology Broadest sense: THE STUDY OF THE MIND Psychology came from the Greek words "psyche" which means soul and "logos" or to study. Psychology is the study of the soul. Elaborate definition: The scientific study of human behavior and mental processes Behavior - is anything a person or an a...

Psychology Broadest sense: THE STUDY OF THE MIND Psychology came from the Greek words "psyche" which means soul and "logos" or to study. Psychology is the study of the soul. Elaborate definition: The scientific study of human behavior and mental processes Behavior - is anything a person or an animal does, feels, or thinks. Types of behavior Overt (easily seen/identified) Covert (covered/hidden) "Behavior and mental processes" includes not just what people do but also their thoughts, feelings, perceptions, reasoning processes & memories, and biological activities. Goals of Psychology To describe particular behaviors by making scientific observations. To explain behaviors by conducting experiments to determine their causes. To predict when a particular behavior will occur in the future. To change inappropriate behavior or circumstances. Historical origins Structuralism Wilheim Wundt Psychology is about the "elements of the mind" Wundt is regarded as the World's First Psychologist making him known as the Father of Psychology Established the first institute for research in experimental psychology at the University of Leipzig, Germany To examine consciousness, Wundt employed the method of INTROSPECTION (self-report) whereby individuals were asked to systematically look inwards at their own inner experiences and examine their sensations, feelings, and thoughts Edward Titchener one of the students of Wundt who popularized Structuralism and identified that there are three elements of the mind: Sensation Images Feelings Functionalism William James Psychology is about the "functions of the mind". Concern: how our mental processes help us adapt to our environment. Functionalists believed that what matters are not the constituents of the human mind, but rather how they help us to adapt and survive. Gestalt Psychology Max Wertheimer Common belief: "The whole is different from the sum of its parts" Perceptual experience can only be comprehended if all parts are viewed in integral manner. Human consciousness experience cannot be broken down into basic elements, but is a meaningful whole. Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud Emphasis is on the Unconscious Drives Central assumption: "human beings are born with unconscious drives that seek some kind of outlet or expression from the very start." Main focus is on the internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious mental processes. ID, Ego, Super ego Conscious, sub conscious, unconscious Indirect manifestations of drives: Sublimation -channeling negative urges and impulses into positive, socially-acceptable behavior Dreams Slips of the tongue (Parapraxes) Techniques: Hypnosis Free association (talk therapy) Dream Analysis Catharsis (couch therapy) cleansing or reduction of a feeling of the same, and led to a dramatic improvement in the patient's physical symptoms. Behaviorism John Broadus Watson Focuses more on the overt and observable responses and behavior. Punishment and reinforcement Psychology should be considered an objective, experimental science, whose goal should be the analysis of observable behaviors & prediction & control of those behaviors. Burrhus Frederic Skinner Skinner further advocated the study of Psychology in the behavioristic approach by examining the effects of reinforcement and punishment on animals and humans Humanism Carl rogers Abraham Maslow Focuses on subjective human experiences, self-realization, potentials, and ideals. Put forward the concept of free will, arguing that humans are able and capable of making their own free choices Maslow believed that humans have a natural tendency toward self-actualization An innate tendency toward growth that motivates all human behavior & results in the full realization of a person's higher potential. Rogers promoted the idea of optimal development and described as “the good life” whereby the individual aims at fulfilling his fullest potential. Contemporary Perspectives The Psychoanalytic and Behaviorist Perspectives Central areas of attention Psychoanalysis: Unconscious mind and early childhood experiences Central figure shaping contemporary behaviorism: B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) Stressed the role of consequences in controlling behavior. Law of Effect -behaviors are more likely to be repeated if they lead to satisfying consequences and less likely to be repeated if they lead to unsatisfying consequences. The Cognitive Perspective An approach that attempts to understand behavior le by studying how the mind organizes perceptions, process information, and interprets experiences. Cognitivists believed that human behaviors are controlled by one's mental processes in response to external environmental forces. The Evolutionary Perspective David Buss argues that just as evolution shapes our physical features, it also pervasively influences how we make decisions, how aggressive we are, our fears, and our mating patterns. Traits and characteristics are being passed on. Natural selection as Basis of Behavior The Sociocultural Perspective Studies how behavior is shaped by social and cultural forces. Culture - is the total lifestyle of people from a particular social grouping, including all the ideas, symbols, preferences, and material objects that they share. Research & Methods in Psychology Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes. Uses standardized scientific procedures to collect data The Scientific Method Step 1: Reviewing the Literature of Existing Theories. scientific theory- a system of interrelated, accumulated research findings used to explain a set of observations & generate testable hypotheses. Step 2: Formulate a Testable Hypothesis hypothesis- a statement of a predicted relationship between two or more variables. Step 3: Design the study and collect the data. data- refers to the measurements of behavior Step 4: Analyze the data & accept or reject the hypothesis Step 5: Publish, Replicate, & Seek Scientific Review Step 6: Theory Building- the Cycle continues Research is the systematic, rigorous investigation of a situation of problem in order to understand existed knowledge, validate existing knowledge, and or generate new knowledge (Krishnakumar, 2011). Psychological Research Archival Research- census data, birth certificates newspaper clippings or Naturalistic Observation-investigator simply observe some naturally occurring behavior and does not intervene in the situation. Survey Research- uses questionnaires or interviews to collect data Mail survey Telephone survey Methods in Psychological Research Case study- an in-depth investigation of an individual or small group of people by asking questions usually using interviews. Correlational research- relationship between two sets of factors are examined whether they are associated or "correlated." Experimental Research- cause-and-effect relationship In an experiment, scientists manipulate one or more factors and observe the effects of this manipulation on behavior. Independent variable -a factor which the researcher controls or manipulates in order to determine their effect on behavior. Dependent variable measures of behavior that are used to assess the effect (if any) of the independent variable. Examples of Correlational and Experimental Researches EXPERIMENTAL Effect of Material Reward to Student's Reading Comprehension Hawthorne Effect Little Albert Experiment Stanford Prison Study CORRELATIONAL Relationship between parenting styles and social anxiety Childhood experiences and tolerance to stress Online education and anxiety Careers in Psychology Psychometrician -Someone who administers psychological tests and scores them. He works under a licensed psychologist and he is not allowed to interpret test results or give clinical assessments. Human Resource Personnel -Assists human resource manager in implementing policies and strategies throughout the company or organization. He/She helps screen and recruit the best applicants. Experimental Psychologist -Conducts pilot study using statistics on a chosen field or subject before pushing through with a major study.  Forensic Psychologist -Works in between psychology and the criminal justice system. -Can serve as an expert witness and is duly assigned to evaluate if the defendant is competent in standing trial. Sports Psychologist -Concerned on the effects of physical activity to the psychological health and performance of athletes. -Can also work as consultants for sports team. -Provides counseling to athletes who undergo career transitions. Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychologist -Involves studying behavior in the workplace. -Geared towards the improvement of each employee's productivity and motivation. -Develop trainings and assess employees to further enhance the company's workforce. Health Psychologist -contribute to the promotion and maintenance of good health through research or practice Rehabilitation Psychologist -focus on people who are physically or cognitively disabled. Psychiatrist -After completing medical school, a doctor of psychiatry specializes in the treatment of severely disturbed patients. Clinical Psychologist -Work with a range of individuals from infants to elderly -The work of a clinical psychologist can involve individual themselves, families/partners, school personnel, other health care workers, and communities Biological Bases of Behavior Every living organism has a set of inherited codes that determine its biological characteristics. This set of codes is known as genotypes. Formed once the gametes (egg and sperm cells) are fused through the process of fertilization Genetic codes are contained within chromosomes, which are strands of genes. Genes refer to the genetic code which carries inheritance information. There are 23 chromosomes in all human cells, except for the egg and sperm cells. Total chromosomes for humans: 46 chromosomes Genetic codes duplicate whenever cell division happens in a process called mitosis (cell division into two identical cells) Unlike other cells, gamete cells, which are produced through meiosis, only have (23 in exact) of the number of chromosomes. Genes are hereditary units made up of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA -is the complex molecule containing the genetic code. With the exception of monozygotic twins (identical twins), no two organisms possess the same set of genetic codes. STAGE CHROMOSOMES IDENTICAL MITOSIS - 1 46 DIPLOID 2 CELLS MEIOSIS - 2 23 HAPLOID 4 CELLS Some genes are found on the sex chromosome Females have two X chromosomes (XX), while males have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome (XY). Different versions of a gene are called alleles. Dominant alleles show their effect even if the individual only has one copy of the allele. Recessive alleles only show their effect if the individual has two copies of the allele. Nature and Nurture Nature Genes and Hereditary Factors physical appearance personality characteristics Nurture Environmental Variables childhood experiences how we were raised social relationships surrounding culture The genotype is the set of genes in our DNA which is responsible for a particular trait. The phenotype is the physical expression, or characteristics, of that trait. Environmental factors that may influence the phenotype include nutrition, temperature, humidity and stress. Methods for Studying Behavior Genetics Twin Studies are a good way to study how much a genotype affects behavior. Comparing the behavior of monozygotic twins, dizygotic twins, and non-twin siblings reveals how much difference in their behavior is due to genetic predisposition, since they usually share similar environments growing up. Adoption studies provide an alternative way to study the nature vs. nurture question. Sometimes, twins are raised in different environments because one or both of them are raised by adoptive families. Studies on genetic abnormalities provides awareness of the complex relationship between human genetics and various disease states. A genetic disorder is a disease caused in whole or in part by a change in the DNA sequence away from the normal sequence. Building Blocks of the Nervous system Our nervous system is composed of millions of cells. They differentiate into various shapes according to functions they serve. Some of them, called neurons, are differentiated into a particular form for neuronal transmission, and are abundant in the nervous system. Neurons are the basic unit of the nervous system. Parts of The Neuron Cell body (soma) is composed of cell constituents including the nucleus, which holds the genetic information of the neuron. Branches： a. Dendrites - receive signals from other neurons b. Axons - relay information away to other neurons. Parts of The Neuron Myelin sheath a layer of fat tissue that insulates the axon from surroundings and speeds up the transmission of the neural impulse within. Terminal bulbs contains synaptic vesicles, which in turn contain neurotransmitters. These are used to communicate with other neurons. Glial Cells Glial cells are supporting cells differentiated for various other functions. The number of glial cells is roughly equal to the number of neurons. Astrocytes are star-shaped glials that hold neurons and other cells in position. Also serve other purposes such as circulating nutrients and metabolic waste and removing debris from intercellular spaces. Astrocytes are the most abundant cells that provide physical nutritional support Oligodendrocytes (hemoglobin-carrying oxygen) are found in the brain and spinal cord and they produce the myelin sheath in the central nervous system. Schwann cells produce the myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system. Transmitting Neuronal Signals Electrochemical Impulses The main responsibility of neurons is to transmit signals within the nervous system and communication with other organs. Signals are transmitted in the form of electrochemical impulses. The main responsibility of neurons is to transmit signals within the nervous system and communication with other organs. Resting Potential -An electrical potential maintained by neurons. When a neuron is "at rest," its axon membrane is maintained in resting potential. When a neuron is not sending a signal, it is "at rest." An action potential occurs when a neuron sends information down an axon, away from the cell body. There are no big or small action potentials in one nerve cell - all action potentials are the same size. Therefore, the neuron either does not reach the threshold or a full action potential is fired - this is the "ALL OR NONE" principle. Neurons are not directly connected to one other but are connected via synapses. In order to transmit the signal across this synaptic cleft, chemicals called neurotransmitters are used. Synapses - tiny junctions between two neurons, where the axon of one neuron meets the dendrites of cell body of another neuron Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters - are chemicals that convey signals within the nervous system. They can either be excitatory or inhibitory. Excitatory neurotransmitters have excitatory effects on the neuron. This means they increase the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential. Inhibitory neurotransmitters have inhibitory effects on the neuron. This means they decrease the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action. Neurotransmitters which play a significant role in our mental health Acetylcholine - involved in voluntary movement, learning, memory, and sleep. Too much acetylcholine is associated with depression, and too little in the hippocampus has been associated with dementia. Dopamine - correlated with movement, attention, and learning. Too much dopamine has been associated with schizophrenia, and too little is associated with some forms of depression as well as the muscular rigidity and tremors found in Parkinson's disease. Norepinephrine - associated with eating, alertness. Too little norepinephrine has been associated with depression, while an excess has been associated with schizophrenia. Epinephrine involved in energy, and glucose metabolism. Too little epinephrine has been associated with depression. Serotonin - plays a role in mood, sleep, appetite, and impulsive and aggressive behavior. GABA (Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid) - inhibits excitation and anxiety. Too little GABA is associated with anxiety and anxiety disorders. Some antianxiety medication increases GABA at the receptor sites. Endorphins - involved in pain relief and feelings of pleasure and contentedness ENDOCRINE SYSTEM To regulate the lengths of different categories of signals and responses, our endocrine system is crucial as it directs the communication between organs by releasing and receiving different kinds of hormones. Endocrine glands have a rich blood supply through which hormones travel to reach their target organs. Hormones travel through ducts - are tubes leading from a gland to its target organ. Ductless Glands - endocrine glands that do not have a duct system. Exocrine Glands - contain ducts such as the skin. Activities of hormones maintain our bodies according to several set of points. Homeostasis - an internal regulation to maintain bodily variable. Areas of control integration: - Responses to stress and injury, - Growth and development, - Absorption of nutrients, - Energy metabolism, - Water and electrolyte imbalance, - Reproduction, - Birth, and Lactation Pituitary Gland "Master gland" Two divisions of Pituitary Gland: a. Adenohypophysis (anterior lobe) b. Neurohypophysis (posterior lobe) Adenohypophysis - Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) - Stimulates secretion of glucocorticoids. - Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) - Stimulates secretion of thyroid hormones - Growth Hormone (GH) or Somatotropin - Promotes protein synthesis and growth; lipolysis and increased blood glucose. - Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) - Promotes gamete production and estrogen production in females. - Prolactin (PRL) - Promotes milk production in lactating females - Luteinizing Hormone (LH) - Stimulates sex hormone secretion; ovulation and corpus luteum formation in females; testosterone secretion in males - Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH) - Contributes to darkening of the skin Thyroid Gland Has two lobes connected by an isthmus (small connecting stalks) and is in the lower part of the neck just below the larynx Produces 3 hormones: a. Thyroxine (T4) b. Triiodothyronine (T3) c. Calcitonin PArathyroid Glands Four glands imbedded in the thyroid gland. Secrete Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) a. Also called parathormone or parathyrin, is a hormone secreted by the parathyroid glands that regulates the serum calcium through its effects on bone, kidney, and intestine. Too much PTH inhibits nervous activity and leads to lethargy (sluggishness, sleepiness, fatigue) Too little of it may lead to tetany (involuntary muscle contraction) Adrenal Glands Location: On top of each kidney Each gland has a cortex (outer region) and a medulla (inner region) Cortex, the outer part of the gland —produces hormones that are vital to life, such as cortisol (which helps regulate metabolism and helps your body respond to stress) and aldosterone (which helps control blood pressure). The adrenal medulla-the inner part of the gland-produces hormones such as: - Epinephrine: Most people know epinephrine by its other name-adrenaline. This hormone rapidly responds to stress by increasing your heart rate and rushing blood to the muscles and brain. - Norepinephrine: Also known as noradrenaline, this hormone works with epinephrine in responding to stress. However, it can cause vasoconstriction (the narrowing of blood vessels). This results in high blood pressure. Gonads (Ovaries & Testes) Puberty glands which produce sperm and egg cells for reproduction. The ovary is the site of estrogen (required to form the ovum) and prepares the uterus for implanting a fertilized egg Progesterone prepares the breasts for lactation during pregnancy and works with estrogen to regulate menstrual cycle. The testes produce the hormone testosterone which is required for sperm formation, the development of male external genitalia, and secondary sexual traits such as beard growth, chest hair, and enlarged thyroid cartilage. Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans) Regulates level of sugar in the blood by secreting two hormones that have opposing actions. - Glucagon - causes the liver to convert its stored sugar into blood sugar and to dump it into the bloodstream. - Insulin -reduces the amount of sugar by helping the body's cells absorb sugar in the form of fat Pineal Gland Located between the cerebral hemispheres, attached to the top of the thalamus. The pineal gland produces melatonin, a serotonin-derived hormone which modulates sleep patterns in both circadian and seasonal cycles. The Nervous System Body's electrochemical communication circuitry. Serves as the body control center and communications and electrical-chemical wiring network. Neuroscience - field that studies the nervous system The nervous system detects, interprets, and responds to changes in internal and external conditions. Two main parts of the Nervous System - Central Nervous System (CNS) Includes the brain and the spinal cord - Peripheral Nervous System The connecting nerve processes to effectors and receptors Nerves carry all messages exchanged between the CNS and the rest of the body. The Brain Made up of more than 100 billion nerves that communicate in trillions of connections called synapses. Divisions: a. Cerebrum b. Cerebellum c. Diencephalon d. Brain Stem Cerebrum (or Cortex) Large rounded area that divides into left and right hemisphere. The left and right hemispheres are connected by bundle of fibers called the corpus callosum. The cerebral hemispheres consist of an inner core of myelinated nerve fibers, the white matter, and an outer cortex of gray matter Divisions of the Cerebral Hemisphere: Frontal lobe - bodily movements Parietal lobe - skin sensation Occipital lobe - vision Temporal lobe - hearing Lateralization of Function The term brain lateralization, or lateralization of brain function, means that the different halves do things differently. Both hemispheres work together to do most things. However, for certain tasks, one hemisphere may be more "dominant" than the other. Cerebellum "Little brain" The cerebellum is located behind the top part of the brain stem (where the spinal cord meets the brain) and is made of two hemispheres (halves). Voluntary movements such as posture, balance, coordination, and speech, resulting in smooth and balanced muscular activity. Vermis - (central constricted area connects the hemispheres) Diencephalon Forms the central part of the brain. The diencephalon relays sensory information between brain regions and controls many autonomic functions of the peripheral nervous system. Hypothalamus - serves as the control center for many autonomic functions through the release of hormones. Thalamus - assists in sensory perception, regulation of motor functions, and control of sleep and wake cycles. Epithalamus - Located in the rear or bottom area of the diencephalon that includes the pineal gland, the epithalamus aids in sense of smell and helps to regulate sleep and wake cycles. Brain Stem Connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord. Parts: Midbrain - center for visual and auditory reflexes Pons - bridges the cerebellum hemispheres and higher brain centers with the spinal cord. Medulla oblongata -contains the control centers for swallowing, breathing, digestion, and heartbeat. Spinal Cord Continuation of the brain stem. Long, cylindrical, and passes through a tunnel in the vertebrae called vertebral canal. Carries messages between the CNS and the rest of the body, and mediates numerous spinal reflexes. Protections of the Brain and the Spinal Cord Meninges Dura mater - prevents excessive brain movement. Arachnoid mater - middle layer forms a loose covering beneath the dura mater. Pia mater - clings to the brain and spinal cord; contains blood vessels that supply the brain & spinal cord Cerebrospinal fluid Protects the brain against crushing under its own weight & cushions against shocks from walking, jumping, and running. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS) Includes sensory receptors, sensory neurons, and motor neurons. Sensory receptors are activated by a stimulus. Stimulus is then converted to an electronic signal and transmitted to a sensory neuron. Sensory neurons connect sensory receptors to CNS. Two main parts: Somatic Nervous System voluntary Includes 31 pairs of spinal nerves and 12 pairs cranial nerves The SNS includes both afferent (sensory) nerves that transmit various types of information (e.g., smells, pressure and pain) to the the brain for processing and efferent (motor) nerves that direct the muscles under your control, such as those in your legs and arms, to execute certain movements, such as throwing or running. Two main parts: Autonomic Nervous System involuntary Maintains homeostasis Efferent portion is divided into two: Sympathetic and Parasympathetic systems The sympathetic nervous system is the part of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body to react to stresses such as threat or injury. It causes muscles to contract and heart rate to increase. The parasympathetic nervous system is the part of the autonomic nervous system that controls functions of the body at rest. It helps maintain homeostasis in the body. It causes muscles to relax and heart rate to decrease.