RePL Exam Study Notes PDF

RePL Exam Study Notes Basic Aviation Knowledge ITEM DEFINITION Track The point on the magnetic compass where your aircraft nose is pointed (the way you are FACING) Heading the path over the ground that yo...

RePL Exam Study Notes Basic Aviation Knowledge ITEM DEFINITION Track The point on the magnetic compass where your aircraft nose is pointed (the way you are FACING) Heading the path over the ground that your aircraft takes (the way you are FLYING) Direction of Flight Direction of ight is expressed in a three gure group, measured from magnetic North in clockwise direction. e.g. 90 degrees is 090, so an RPA with a heading of 090 is facing due east. True Heading Measured with a reference to True North Magnetic Heading The actual direction with Magnetic Variation applied Magnetic Variation East is least, West is best. If magnetic variation is to the East, subtract the amount from your True Heading to get the Magnetic heading. Vice versa for West magnetic variation. Wind Velocity Includes both direction and speed of the wind. e.g. Wind blowing from the West (270) at 10 knots is written as 27010kt Wind Direction Wind direction is always the direction FROM WHICH THE WIND IS BLOWING. UTC To calculate our time from the UTC: - Add 10 hours for QLD at all times - Add 11 hours for East coast during daylight saving - Add Height The vertical distance above ground level (AGL) On an aeronautical chart, this is the number at the BOTTOM IN BRACKETS. Elevation The vertical distance of a point on the Earth’s Surface measured as ABOVE MEAN SEA LEVEL (AMSL). On an aeronautical chart, this is the number at the TOP (above number in brackets) Altitude The vertical distance of any object measured AMSL Nautical Miles 1 Nautical Mile = 1.852 Kilometres = 1 minute of latitude OKTAS Measurement of cloud cover in METAR and TAF reports 0 OKTAS = SKC = Sky clear 1-2 OKTAS = FEW = few clouds 3-4 OKTAS = SCT = scattered clouds 5-6 OKTAS = BKN = Broken clouds 7-8 OKTAS = OVC = Overcast Lift - Acts perpendicular to the oncoming ow direction of relative air ow - Wings and propeller produce a region of high and low pressure on either side of the wing/prop, causing air to move from high to low pressure area and cause lift 1 of 11 fl fl fi fl  Drag Parasite Drag = drag that does not result from the induction of lift on the body, results when an aircraft moves through an area. Types of Parasite Drag: - Form Drag = the drag caused by the SHAPE of the aerofoil. DECREASE SURFACE AREA to combat - Interference Drag = drag caused by the joining of two parts on an aircraft - Skin Friction = drag caused by the surface of the aircraft (how smooth it is) Induced Drag: the turbulent air ow caused by the rear of the aerofoil that is a byproduct of lift. NOT PART OF PARASITE DRAG Empty Weight This is the aircraft “as built” Operating Weight Weight of the aircraft including crew, uids necessary for operation, but excludes usable fuel and payload MTOW Maximum Takeo Weight Centre of Pressure The average location of all the pressure acting upon a body moving through a uid. As the angle of attack increases, the CP moves forward along the centre of gravity Bernoulli’s An increase in speed of a uid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or Principle potential energy. As the uid accelerates, it creates a reduction in pressure. Aerofoil The cross sectional shape of a wing, blade or sail. The Mean Camber Line is the line of equal distance between upper and lower surface of an aerofoil. Lift generated with increased speed will counter any reduction in lift resulting from a low coe cient. Camber line increase won’t lose lift. The Chord Line of an aerofoil is from the front to the back of the wing. Angle of Attack The angle at which relative air ow meets an aerofoil above the Trailing Edge of an aerofoil (how tilted it is). - Increasing the angle of attack to a Critical Angle will produce maximum lift - Beyond this Critical Angle, lift coe cient will rapidly decrease Relative air ow The air ow in relation to the direction of travel (always opposite to the direction you’re going in) Rotational air ow Produced by rotation of a propeller. Induced air ow As a propeller blade produces lift, air is projected vertically, this is known as induced ow or the common term downwash Coanda E ect A gas/ uid will attach to and ow across a wing/prop surface following the curvature of the aerofoil Propeller Pitch The distance a propeller will travel in a single rotation. Fine pitch = small blade angle Fixed pitch = large blade angle Most RPAs have xed propeller pitch. Slip Uncoordinated ight where aeroplane moves towards the inside of a turn Skid Tail of aeroplane moves away from the centre of the turn Angle of Climb The angle between a horizontal plane (Earth’s surface) and the actual ight path. The best Angle of Climb gets you the greatest altitude per unit of distance (feet per mile) Headwind increases climb angle Tailwind decreases climb angle 2 of 11 fl fl fl ff fl fl fl fl ff fi fl fl fl ffi fl fl ffi fl fl fl Rate of Climb Ratio between distance travelled over the ground and altitude gained, expressed as a percentage. Best rate of climb gets you the most altitude per unit time (feet per minute) IFR and VRF IFR = Instrument Flight Rules. Relying on instruments and coordination with ATC to navigate through weather. VFR = Visual Flight Rules. Relying on visual references for Navigation. RPA are considered VFR aircraft. In the event of Turn aircraft right - this is the universally acknowledged evasion manoeuvre. COLLISION Meteorology ITEM DEFINITION Air Mass water Air masses with greater water content are less stable content Air masses with higher cloud base has a lower dew point Warm Air Mass Has greater capacity for holding water vapour When moving from a warm region to a cold region, an air mass becomes more stable. Cold Air Mass When moving from cold region to warm region, air mass becomes less stable. Clouds Stratocumulus: Low level, rounded rolls, generally white. Can produce drizzle. Stratus: Low level, grey uniform mass. Can produce drizzle Cumulus: Individual cells, vertical rolls or towers with at base. Can produce showers or snow. Cumulonimbus: anvil shape. Very dangerous, strongest updrafts. Turbulence Occurs when air ow becomes chaotic and apparently random. Wind Shear Sudden change in wind speed and/or direction. Low level especially hazardous Convection The process associated with warm rising air and formation of cloud. Fronts Cold Front: The boundary along the leading edge of a cold air mass that is pushing out of a warm air mass. As a cold front passes, wind increases in speed and pivots 180 degrees to travel in opposite Warm Front: Precipitation static An electrical charge on the surface of the aircraft caused by ying through rain, snow, ice or dust particles. Static can build up on the RPA and a ect communications. Isobars Lines of equal pressure. Distance between lines gives an indication of how strong and which direction wind will below from. High pressure More stable, cold air. Wind ows counterclockwise. Air from atmosphere above sinks system down. Smoke haze from a bush re will last longer in a High Pressure System Low pressure Less stable, warm air. Wind ows clockwise. Rising air cools and begins to form system clouds Trough An elongate area where atmospheric pressure is low. An indication of not ideal weather. 3 of 11 fl fl fl fi fl ff fl  Density Altitude Determined by air pressure and temperature. As air becomes less dense, it reduces lift and impairs propeller e ciency. Virga Water expelled from a cloud base that doesn’t reach the ground Collision- The process of supercooled water droplets attaching to ice crystals as they fall Coalescence through a cloud. process Pressure Gradient The net force associated with change in pressure measured across a given distance. Force, Coriolis It’s what moves air masses from regions of high to low pressure and is countered by e ect and the Coriolis e ect which causes the air mass to be de ected from this path in an Geostrophic Wind easterly direction (due to rotation of the earth). The balancing of these forces on an air mass causes Geostrophic wind. Sea Breeze Occurs during day when Warm Air is over land and Cold Air is over sea (onshore breeze In afternoon, Land will be cooler and create a high pressure system that pushes the air back out to the sea. Katabatic Wind Accelerated release of heat at night from the Earth’s surface will cause it to cool, developing a high pressure system that makes air fall. On mountains, the air will falll down the mountain slope with increased speed. Strongest before the dawn. Fohn Wind Caused when a moist, warm air mass is blown over a mountain and cools at the top of the peak. It then falls down on the lee side of the mountain. Aeronautical Regs, Resources & Documents ITEM DEFINITION Form 101-09 Used by ReOC holders to apply for ight authorisations AIP Aeronautical Information Publication. This package of documents provides all the operational info necessary for safe air navigation. Updated every 3RD AIRAC CYCLE (3 months) and includes: SUP, AIC, DAH, ERSA, RDS, DAP, VTC, ERCs, TAC, VNC, PCA, WAC. DOES NOT INCLUDE THE CAAP. CAO Civil Aviation Orders = provides further detail on application of regulations to RPAS. This is the answer to Q2 in the quiz. Does not make sense. CAAP Provides advice and guidance to help industry comply with the regulations, or to explain the regulations. AIRAC Cycle Every 28 days ERSA En Route Supplement Australia. It is an encyclopaedia of airports, and is updated every 3rd AIRAC cycle (approx every 12 weeks). WAC World Aeronautical Chart. Scale is 1:1 million and only good for ying A to B / plane pilots. Lamberts Conformal Conic Projection. VTC Visual Terminal Chart - the best chart to use for RPAS operations. Scale 1:250,000. Is a Transverse Mercator Projection. Updated EVERY 6TH AIRAC CYCLE ( 6 months) VNC Visual Navigation Chart. Used by plane pilots, scale 1:500,000. Lamberts Conformal Conic Projection. 4 of 11 ff ff ffi fl fl fl  FIR Flight Information region. Australia has TWO FIRs - one in Brisbane, and one in Melbourne. NOTAM Notice To Airmen: Short notices to alert pilots of potential hazards along a ight route or at a location. Only need to raise one if part of a condition of Approval to y. Area Brie ng Large area forecast obtained from NAIPs Standard 1. VLOS Operating 2. Not above 400ft (120m) above ground level Conditions 3. Only in Daytime 4. No closer than 30 m from people not associated with the ight 5. Not in a prohibited or restricted area 6. Not over populous areas 7. Not within 3nm (5.5km) of the movement area of a controlled aerodrome 8. Not in an area of a public safety operation 9. Only 1 RPA can be own per pilot at any one time. Populous area rule Can’t y over populous area where if your drone was to fail it could hit someone clari cation - Means that if it’s a particularly dense area, you can’t y over it. - What’s the likelihood of it hitting someone? this will determine if allowed MOS Manual of Standards Record keeping All records must be kept for at least 7 years (Remote pilot log, technical log) Immediately This is a serious transport safety matter that must be reported to ATSB. Includes: Reportable Matter - Accidents involving death, serious injury - Aircraft is destroyed or seriously damaged - Any property is destroyed or seriously damaged Routine Transport safety matter that isn’t immediately reportable but it was a near miss or Reportable Matter safety was a ected. Report within 72 hours to ATSB Legislation docs CAA = Civil Aviation Act 1998 CASR = Civil Aviation Safety Regs 1998 contains Part 101 CAO = Civil Aviation Orders, which has techy info Advisory Circular = further explains stu in the regs Aerodrome & Airspace Knowledge ITEM DEFINITION CTAF Common Tra c Advisory Frequency - this is the frequency you can use to monitor tra c in the area for an aerodrome TAF Terminal Aerodrome Forecast. This tells you the weather expected at an aerodrome and is issued every 3 hours. Controlled Is actively managed by air tra c controllers. You must gain clearance to enter from Airspace ATC Uncontrolled Has no separation service provided by ATC, so no clearance required to operate Airspace here. Control Zone Airspace directly above airports, from Surface to a certain Altitude Control Area Areas of controlled airspace above other airspace. Prohibited No-go zone. Ever. Airspace 5 of 11 ffi fi fl fi ff ffi fl ffi ff fl fl fl fl  Restricted RA1 = You can ight plan through and get clearance from ATC Airspace RA2 = Can only ight plan through if on a route speci ed by ERSA or under agreement with Dept. of Defence, but clearance not likely RA3 = Can’t ight plan through and clearance won’t be available. Restricted airspace is always controlled when active. When not active, it reverts to Class G unless another airspace occupies that area. Danger Area No approval required, but could be activities happening that are dangerous to ight of aircraft. Movement Area The part of an aerodrome including both manoeuvring and apron areas. Manoeuvring area = runways and taxiways Aprons = where aircraft are parked / loaded / refuelled Which runway is in Wind direction determines runway in use. Planes will take o and land into wind. use? Approval to You must have an RePL, a ReOC and Form 101-09 lled out operate within 3nm of movement area Military zones You need a valid letter of agreement along with any other stu that applies. Permission is however NOT REQUIRED for operating at Joint User Aerodromes Airspace classes RPA will most often operate in Class C, D and G. Class A = IFR aircraft only. Class E = IFR and VFR Class G = Less dense air tra c. At or below 10,000ft in this airspace, the visibility needs to be at least 5km, and clear of cloud, in sight of ground or water. Class C = Aerodrome airspace. Controlled Class D = Medium density aerodromes, controlled RPA Knowledge ITEM DEFINITION PITCH Rotates on the LATERAL axis (Z) ROLL Rotates on the LONGITUDINAL axis (X) YAW Rotates on the VERTICAL axis (Y) Mode 2 The most common con guration of ight controls on an RPA controller. Left stick = throttle and yaw Right stick = pitch and roll Geo-fencing A software that uses GPS/RFID to de ne geographical boundaries that the drone can y in Telemetry This is all your ight data, from battery status to video feed. Batteries Never deplete the battery below 20% ESC Electronic Speed Controller. Regulates electrical energy received from battery and sends the correct amount to the motors. It also converts the Direct Current of the battery to an alternating circuit. Contained within Flight Controller 6 of 11 fl fl fl fl fl fi ffi fl fi fi fi ff ff fl  BEC Battery Eliminator Circuit. Eliminates the need for separate batteries by supplying electricity to ESC and Motors. Contained within the ESC. Transmitting and Both the receiver and remote receiver (on the RPA) needs the ability to TRANSMIT Receiving Signals and RECEIVE data. For the best range and video, keep video transmitter as far from the radio system antenna and receiver antenna for best performance. Obstruction by the drone body can make you lose video. GPS Global Positioning System. 31 satellites in the atmosphere and 24 operational at any given time. GPS requires a minimum of 4 satellites to triangulate your position. Can be a ected by: - Blockage from buildings - Multipath (signal re ected o buildings or walls) - Solar storms - Indoor/underground use Collision 3 types include Infrared, Monocular vision and Ultrasonic (Sonar) sensors. Avoidance Infrared uses infrared re ection principle to detect objects Sensors Monocular vision captures images and does 3D depth reconstruction from single still image Ultrasonic bounces high frequency sound pulses o things and times how long it takes for them to echo back to measure distance. Some drones may have more than one obstacle avoidance system. Redundancy Redundancy is the duplicate of critical components or functions of a system with the intention of increasing reliability of the system - usually in form of fail safe. Redundancy is your system’s PLAN B. For example - multi rotor with 6 or more motors means it can maintain ight if one fails. Other examples include Return to Home, Geofencing and Low Battery level failsafe Tethered Lead can’t be longer than 160ft Operations Used either when operating area is restricted, or required ight time exceeds normal endurance of battery Minimum 2 person crew Tether must be checked every 50 ights / 25 hours Drone size Sub 250g categories 250g - 2kg 2kg - 25kg 25kg - 150kg 150kg + Automated Pilots must be able to override or modify automated functions when deemed Systems necessary (Except where these actions aren’t safe, or task complexity makes human intervention unreasonable) Gyroscope Measures angular velocity and changes in level ight. Sends info to Flight Controller to stabilise the RPA Accelerometer Measures acceleration in Pitch, Roll and Yaw. Measured in m/s squared Barometer/ Measures the ambient pressure while on ground and compares it to the pressure at Altimeter di erent highest to give height above ground level 7 of 11 ff ff fl fl ff fl fl fl ff fl  Magnetometer This is the COMPASS. Ground e ect For xed wing aircraft, this is the increased lift and decreased aerodynamic drag that hover an aircraft’s wings generate when they are close to a xed surface. When landing, the aircraft might feel like it’s hovering. For RPAs, the downward air is momentarily trapped between the blades and the ground, which creates a cushion of slightly higher pressure area that adds to the rotors lift. Therefore, hovering or moving in ground e ect uses less energy. Only e ective within about 1/2 to 3/4 rotor diameter above the ground. Propeller blades Are twisted to evenly distribute the lift along the blade. Blade surface is alleger and higher angle of attack at the hub, and slimmer and less angle at tip Air at higher altitudes is thinner, and the e ectiveness of propellers is reduced Rotor Thrust (very This is the force created by a rotor at right angles to the plane of rotation of the rotor important - don’t disc. IT REFERS TO AN INDIVIDUAL ROTOR, not all combined. confuse with thrust) Rotor Drag Drag is applied to an aircraft in ight. This def refers to drag on a ROTOR. Translational lift Improved rotor e ciency resulting from directional ight is called translational lift. You are creating turbulence and vortices around your rotor system, so rotors need to spin harder and faster to keep drone stable. By moving the aircraft forwards, clean air washes through the rotor system and makes it more e cient than just hovering in one spot. Recirculation Air that has already passed through the rotor system Vortex Ring State Occurs when you y through your rotors’ downwash (ie, descending in a straight line too quickly). This results in loss of lift and control (RPA can plummet) Always descend slowly to avoid, and descend into wind if you can. Radio Knowledge ITEM DEFINITION CTAF Common Tra c Advisory Frequency - this is the frequency you can use to monitor tra c in the area for an aerodrome VHF Line of sight radio. Frequency is 30 to 300 MHz HF Uses ionosphere to bounce waves back to earth. 3 to 30 Mhz AROC AROC is mandatory when operating in any airspace managed by ATC, or if an aerodrome requires it Radio Frequency Most RPA will use either 2.4 gHz or 5.8 gHz for transmitting commands. Each di erent command requires a single channel (YAW, PITCH, ROLL, THROTTLE) Aerial Transmits and receives radio waves. Antenna Receives radio waves only, doesn’t transmit Things that a ect Sunspots, interference from electrical equipment, thunderstorms, powerlines, radio waves 8 of 11 ff ffi fi ff ff ffi ff ffi fl fl ff fl ff fi ffi  Volts Voltage, the pressure, unit of measure is the Volt Amps Current (measures ow of electricity) Ampere Watts Power (force) unit of measure Ohms Resistance (Friction) Hertz Metric unit to measure frequency, the rate at which something vibrates or oscillates Fuse Breaks the circuit if a fault causes too much current ow. Cannot be reset. Circuirt Breaker Breaks the circuit the same as a fuse, but it can be reset only once. Actuator / Converts energy into torque, and can introduce motion as well as prevent it. Essential Servomechanism in positioning the RPA and keeping it stable. Brushless Motor Reduces wear on components Small reduction in weight More reliable and durable KV Refers to the constant velocity of a motor. Means we’re measuring the number of revolutions per minute that a motor spins with 1 volt and no load. 720 Kv = at 1v, it will spin at 720rpm (revolutions per minute) LiPO Voltage Nominal voltage is 3.7v Voltage limit is 3.0V LiPO batteries LiPo Pros pros and cons - Much lighter weight - Higher capacity - Higher discharge rates Cons - Much shorter overall lifespan - Sensitive chemistry can lead to re - Needs special care for charing, storing and discharging LiPO Charging Always allow battery to cool before charging. Always charge to full. Discharge Rating Discharging batteries means reducing the LiPO to a storage level (3.0v) Discharge Rating = If we see a C rating, this is the Rate at which the battery can be discharged safely. You must discharge to between 45-65%, at the 1C rating, using equipment speci ed by manufacturer. Battery Balancing The process conducted by the charger to ensure each of the cells in the battery are charged evenly. When the voltage of a battery di ers by 0.1v or more, you should balance your battery (can see this in your telemetry data) If cells are unbalanced, they can be damaged during discharge as they might go below 3.0V, they’ll cause incorrect motor response and irregular peaks in voltage. Miliamp hours mAh = Capacity of battery is measured in milliamp hours. This is the (mAh) drain that the battery can be subjected to for 1 hour at which it will be fully discharged. 9 of 11 fi fl ff fi fl  Cell Count Number of individual cells connected in a series to form a battery. Cell Count / Voltage = ie 2S 7.4 V = 2S is the cell count. This means it has 2 cells. Series Provides higher voltage but same capacity Parallel Provides high capacity but same voltage Watt Hour Rating WATT HOUR RATING = mAh x volts / 1000 and taking Batteries should be taped over the terminals with electrical tape and put in zip lock batteries on ights bags at the least. Carry bags can be purchased. - Batteries with Watt hour 100 or less = Can be carried on, not checked in. Unlimited amount. - Batteries above 100 not exceeding 160 = must gain approval from aircraft before ying. CAN TAKE 2 in CARRY ON only. Thermal Runaway - Over time the internal resistance within the battery will increase - Energy lost through internal resistance will generate additional heat - Protective layers of cell break down - Electrolytes on inside start to emit ammable gases - When the gases come into contact with oxygen they will cause combustion - Thermal runway can be caused by battery being dropped or shorting of the circuit Thermal Runaway 1. Allow battery to burn to completion if possible Emergency 2. Pour water over the battery if safe to do so, but you need a LOT for it to work Response 3. Do not use ice or smothering substances as they could insulate Human factors stu ITEM DEFINITION Airmanship Aviate, Navigate, Communicate Mantra Tony Kern’s Model Bedrock principles: Discipline, Skill, Pro ciency of Airmanship Pillars of knowledge: Self, Team, Aircraft, Environment, Risk Capstone outcomes: Situational Awareness, Judgement Wickens Model for Perceive, Transform data, Decision, action Human Information Processing BAC 0.02% or less. “8 hours from bottle to throttle” 10 of 11 fl fl ff fl fi  Rod and Cone Rod = See in black and white, bad resolution, but good in low light. 30-45min of cells darkness to get used to it Cone = perceive ne detail and colour, but only in lots of light. 5-7 minutes to get the best sensitivity Empty eld myopia = objects at in nity are blurred. So look periodically and deliberately at objects at in nity to keep eyes active Myopia Short sightedness Hyperopia Far sightedness Astigmatism Blurred vision caused by irregularly shaped cornea Presbyopia Normal ageing of the eye Stress Improves performance at onset then declines. 3 stages of stress: Alarm = Symptoms of ght or ight Resistance = Resisting ‘giving in’ and performance improves Collapse = After resistance is unsuccessful, FAILURE!!! Defence = Alleviation of symptoms Coping = Involve dealing with the source of the stress rather than symptoms Threat and error Means assuming that people will naturally make mistakes, and plan for it. management Threat = an event or an error occurring outside the in uence of persons operating RPA Error = an action or inaction that leads to a deviation by the Pilot. Latent Threat Unacknowledged threats are those that may not be directly obvious or observable Crew Resource CRM is the cognitive and interpersonal skills to manage resources within a system. Management Strategic Risk Identi ed before a task Tactical Risks Identi ed as they unfold Risk Rating Table Low risk = score of 4 or less Medium risk = score of 5 or 6, must be reduced to an acceptable level using ALARP High risk = above 6, unacceptable Calculated using Consequence + Likelihood 11 of 11 fi fi fi fi fi fi fl fi fl