Study Guide Midterm PDF

[Chapter 1] Key Terms: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. [Chapter 2] Key Terms: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10....

[Chapter 1] Key Terms: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. [Chapter 2] Key Terms: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. **Explain biology as a process of scientific discovery** - What is the study of life? What is pseudoscience? Describe some examples of each. Biology is the study of life. Pseudoscience are beliefs, theories, or practices that have no scientific evidence. **Determine the levels of organization of matter** - ○ What are each of the levels of organization? Cells -- smallest unit of life, Tissues -- a group of different cells that make up tissues, Organs -- group of similar tissues make up an organ, Organ System- organs make up an organ system, Organism -- all of the organ systems - ○ Describe the differences between a population, community, and ecosystem. Population -- consist of organisms individuals of the same species, Community -- all populations of all species in a given area, Ecosystem -- communities interacting with their environment **Describe the underlying characteristics that unite all living things** - What are the major principles of living things? Has to have DNA, be able to reproduce, and adapt homeostasis - What is the difference between a producer and a consumer? Producers make their own energy where as consumers obtain energy from other organisms or producer. - What is homeostasis? Sensing and responding to change internally and externally - How does energy move within an ecosystem? Is heat a usable energy source? Energy moves in one direction. Heat is not a usable energy but is released in the process of making or obtaining energy. - What is a nutrient? How do nutrients move within an ecosystem? A nutrient is a substance necessary for survival that an organism cannot make itself. One way flow. - What is the purpose of DNA? Do all living things contain DNA? The purse of DNA is to carry genetic information passed on to all living things. **Explain the taxonomic organization of the three domains of living things based on cellular structure: Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya** - What are characteristics of the three Domains? Archea, Bacteria, Eukarya - What are the characteristics of a prokaryotic cell? Prokaryotic cell is a single celled organism in which DNA is not contained in the nucleus - What are the characteristics of a eukaryotic cell? What components are found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes? Eukaryotic cell is organisms whose DNA is contained within the nucleus. All cells contain DNA, Cytosol, and a membrane (plasma or phospholipid) - What are the four main groups of eukaryotes? Protist, Fungi, Plants, Animals - The Linnaean System - How are species classified? What are the components of the scientific name? Taxonomy two-part binomial nomenclature (scientific name) consisting of its genus and species. [Genus] first part **capitalized** and ***italicized***. [Species] second part **not capitalized**. Ex: *Homo* sapien - What techniques to biologists use to determine the species of living things? What is the biological species concept? Binomial nomenclature classification of life two-part name genus and species. **Apply experimental design by analyzing the design components of experiments for cause and effect relationships** - Describe the components of an experiment: - What is the difference between a hypothesis and a scientific theory? Hypothesis is a testable explanation of a natural phenomenon where as a scientific theory is a existing evidence, and research's use it to make successful predictions about a wide range of other phenomena - What is a Control Group? Group not exposed to the independent variable being tested - What is an Experimental Group? Group of individuals who have certain characteristics or receive a certain treatment - What is a dependent variable? What is an independent variable? Dependent variable changes as a result of the independent variable the one variable that is changed to determine the outcome. - What is critical thinking? Is the deliberate process of judging the quality of information before accepting it. - What is sampling error and how do scientists avoid this when developing an experiment? A sampling error is the difference between results obtained from a subset and results of a whole. To avoid obtain double blind study where both participants and the researcher do not know who is receiving a particular treatment. **Explain pseudoscience.** - Compare and contrast what would be seen in natural science vs. pseudoscience. [Chapter 2.1] Key Terms: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. **Identify the subatomic particles and their charges within an atom.** - What is an element? What is an atom? What are the components of an atom? An element is a pure substance that consists only of atoms with the same number of protons. An atom is the smallest unit of matter. Atoms consist of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons. - What are the charges of a proton, neutron, and electron? Protons are positive charged, neutrons no charge, electron is negatively charged. **Examine the types of chemical bonds found within specific compounds** - What does it mean when an atom is neutral? What does it mean when an atom is positively or negatively charged? An atom is neutral when the number of protons equals the number of electrons. When an atom is positively charged it loses one or more electrons. Negatively charged atoms gain one or more electrons. - What are chemical bonds? Strong attractive force that arises between two atoms when their electrons interact. **Correlate the use of buffers on acids and bases to manipulate the pH of solutions** - What is the pH of a solution? What would cause the pH of a solution to become more acidic or basic? Measure of the concentration of H+ in a solution. More H+ more acidic. More OH- more basic. - How does the H+ ion concentration affect the pH of a solution? The more **H+ ions**, the **lower** the pH. (Acidic) - What are the pH ranges for an acidic, basic or neutral solution? Neutral 7. Bellow 7 are acidic. Above 7 is more basic. **Define organic molecules and explore the structures and functions of the molecules of life: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids** - Describe the structure and function of **Carbohydrates.** Carbohydrates consist of a carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio. Used for fuel, as structural materials, and for storing energy. - What are the monomers and polymers of carbohydrates? Sugar or a polymer made from sugar monomers. - What are some monosaccharide and polysaccharide examples? Monosaccharide -- Glucose Polysaccharide -- Cellulose, Starch, and Glycogen. - Describe the characteristics of the following polysaccharides: glycogen, cellulose, starch. Glycogen -- consists of highly branched chains of glucose monomers. Cellulose -- hydrogen bonds stabilize long straight chains of glucose monomers. The cross-linked chains form long tough fibers that few organisms can digest. Starch -- consists of long coiled chains of glucose monomers. - Describe the structure and function of **Lipids**. - What are the general properties of fatty acids? How do these properties contribute to the phospholipid bilayer? Fatty acids consist of a long hydrocarbon "tail" with a carboxyl group "head". Double layer of lipids arranged tail-to-tail. - What is the differences in structure and function of saturated and unsaturated fats? Saturated fats have three saturated fatty acid tails or single bonds linking the carbons in their tails. Whereas unsaturated fats have one or more unsaturated fatty acid tails or at least one double bond between carbons making up its tail. - What are some food sources of saturated fats? What about unsaturated fats? Saturated Fats -- Butter and Lard. Unsaturated Fats - Oils - What is the structure and function of a triglyceride? What is the major structure and function of a phospholipid? Three fatty acids bonded to the same glycerol. Most abundant and richest energy source. Lipid with two (hydrophobic) fatty acid tails and a (hydrophilic) head that contains a phosphate group. Main constituent of eukaryotic cell membranes. - Describe the structure and function of **Proteins.** Move substances, help cells communicate, and defend the body. One or more chains of amino acids folded up into a specific shape. - What are the monomers of proteins? What are the polymers of proteins? Monomer of protein are amino acids polymers are polypeptides. - What are the components of an amino acid? Which component determines the amino acid type? Consists of a carboxyl group, an amine group, and one of 20 R groups, all bonded to the same carbon atom. R group. - What bonds are found between the amino acids within a polypeptide? Peptide bonds Polypeptide chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. - Describe the structure and function of **Nucleic Acids** - What are the monomers of nucleic acids? Nucleotides - What is the function of Nucleic Acids? Function as energy carriers, enzyme helpers, chemical messengers, and subunits of **DNA and RNA**. Guides protein synthesis [Chapter 3] Key Terms: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. **Explain the cell theory** - What are the components/principles of the cell theory? Every living organism consists of one or more cells, the cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life cells are individually alive even as part of a muticelled organism, all living cells arise by division of preexisting cells. - What kind of aspects will limit the size of the cell? How is the surface area and volume of the cell related? **Surface-to-volume ratio** when a cell expands in diameter its volume increases faster than its surface area does. Limits cell size and influences cell shape. - How did the microscope contribute to the development of the cell theory? Typical cells are visible only with the help of microscopes. Different microscopy techniques reveal different aspects of cell structure. **Recognize the differences in structure and function of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells** - What components are found in all cell types? Plasma membrane, DNA, and cytosol - What are some cellular structures shared by bacteria and eukarya? What are some cellular structures found in eukaryotic cells but not bacteria? Cell membrane, Cytoplasm, Ribosoms, and DNA. Nucleus, Mitochondria, ER, Golgi body, Vesicle, Lysosomes and Peroxisome, Vacuole. - What are some cellular structures found in plant cells but not animal cells? Chloroplast and Cell wall. **Outline the structure and function of the cell membrane with regard to water balance and the fluid mosaic model** - Describe the overall structure of the lipid bilayer. Double layer of lipids arranged tail to tail. - What are the properties of the phospholipid? Which component is hydrophilic and hydrophobic? How do each of those components interact with water? Two fatty acid **tails hydrophobic** and the head with a phosphate group in its **hydrophilic head**. **Hydrophobic** water fearing do not mix with water. **Hydrophilic** water loving. - What is the fluid mosaic model of cell membrane? How do phospholipids contribute to this model? **Identify the functions and relationships of specific organelles and extracellular structures of eukaryotic cells** - What are the functions of the following cellular structures? - Nucleus -- Protects and controls access to DNA - Cytosol -- structural support - Cytoplasm -- **site of some or all of the cells metabolism** - Cell membrane (plasma membrane) -- selectively permeable barrier surrounds the **cell and controls which substances move in and out** - Mitochondria -- Aerobic respiration ATP production - Chloroplast -- Photosynthesis (**Only found in plants**) - Ribosomes -- Assembles polypeptides protein synthesis - Flagella -- mobility (Sperm tail) - Cilia -- movement of the cell - Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum -- **protein production** - Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum -- **lipid production** - Golgi Apparatus (body) -- modifies polypeptides and lipids. **Sorts and packages** = Amazon warehous - Transport Vesicles -- **stores, transports, or degrades its contents** - What does it mean to be a "membrane bound" organelle? Organelles in a cell that are surrounded by a membrane - What cell types would have a flagellum? How do cilia and flagella allow for movement in different cells? Bacteria, protist, algae, fungi, sperm. Cilia is a coordinated, rhythmic, back and forth beating motion. Flagella whip tail back and forth to propel. - What organelles are involved in the endomembrane system? Vesicles, Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), and Golgi bodies. - What is a biofilm? Give an example. **Slime layer** that **bacteria** receive **nutrients** from [Chapter 4] Key Terms: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. **Explain the relationship between reactants and products** - What are reactants and products within a reaction? During a reaction the **reactant** molecule that I changed by the reaction produces the **products**. Substrates a reactant in an enzyme mediated reaction. - What is activation energy and how do cells store and retrieve energy from organic molecules? Activation energy is the minimum amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction. Cells store energy in chemical bonds by assembling organic molecules. The retrieve the stored energy by breaking the bonds of these molecules. - What is the first law of thermodynamics? Give an example. The **First law of Thermodynamics** is energy cannot be created or destroyed. - What is the second law of thermodynamics? Give an example. The **Second law of Thermodynamics** is energy tends to spontaneously spread out or disperse. Ex: cooling of a hot pan - What is the definition of work? What is ATP? Work is the transfer of energy to do something. ATP is energy. **Identify the function and aspects of enzymes within metabolic pathways** - What is the function of enzymes? What is enzyme specificity? What is the active site? An **enzyme** are proteins that speed up particular reaction without being changed by it. **Active site** is a pocket where **substrates** bind and the reaction occurs. - Describe some of the effects that can cause enzymes to not work properly. Temperature, pH, and salts (changes shape and effects function) - What is the purpose of enzymes in a metabolic pathway? Enzyme mediated reactions that collectively build, remodel, or break down an organic molecule in a stepwise series. **Compare and contrast the processes and cellular mechanisms of substance movement across cell membranes** - What is the difference between passive and active transport? Passive (no energy) Active transport (requires energy ATP) - How does concentration gradient affect passive transport? Concentration causing substances to move from high concentration to low concentration without energy. - What are the differences between the major types of passive transport? - Describe the movement of a solute via diffusion. Travels from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. - How is facilitated diffusion different from diffusion? It requires assistance of a carrier protein embedded in the cell membrane to move molecules across the membrane. - What is osmosis? What determines the movement of the water across the cell membrane? Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane between two fluids that are not isotonic (Membrane) - How are solutions described in terms of concentration of solutes? What do these terms mean? Isotonic Iso = Same Tonic = Strength, Hypertonic Hyper = More, Hypotonic Hypo = Less - When a cell interacts with a **hypertonic** solution what kind of movement occurs across the membrane? More solutes and less solvent - When a cell interacts with a **hypotonic** solution what kind of movement occurs across the membrane? Fewer solutes and more solvent - What does it mean when solutions are isotonic? Describe the water/solute movement. Same concentration of solutes and solvent - Give examples of hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions. Red blood cells in isotonic solution have an idented disk shape. Red blood cells in hypertonic shrivel up. Red blood cells in hypotonic swell up. [Chapter 6] Key Terms: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. **Compare and contrast the components and relationships of aerobic and anaerobic processes. Describe the main stages of aerobic respiration (cellular respiration)** - Identify the components of aerobic respiration (equation) - Identify the location of **Glycolysis**. **Cytoplasm** - What are the reactants and products of Glycolysis? What is the ATP yield? Reactants Glucose, 2 ATP, and 2 NADH+. Products 2 Pyruvate, 2 NADH, 2 ATP. - Identify the location of **Acetyl CoA**. **Mitochondria** - What are the reactants and products of Acetyl CoA formation? What is the ATP yield? Reactant is pyruvate products are 2 Acetyl CoA, 2 CO2, and 2 NADH. No ATP yield - Identify the location of **Citric Acid (Kreb's Cycle)**. **Mitochondria** - What are the reactants and products of Citric Acid (Kreb's Cycle)? What is the ATP yield? Reactants 2 Acetyl CoA produces 4 CO2, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and **2 ATP** - Identify the location of **Oxidative Phosphorylation**. **Mitochondria** - What are the reactants and products of Oxidative Phosphorylation (Electron Transport Chain)? What is the ATP yield? Reactants 10 NADH and 2 FADH2 produces H2O and 34 ATP - Describe the pathway for the H+ ions and electrons during oxidative phosphorylation. What is the final electron acceptor? Energy released by electrons moving through the electron transfer chain fuels the active transport of hydrogen ions H+ from the matrix to intermembrane space. A hydrogen ion gradient forms across the inner membrane. O2 accepts electrons at the end. - What powers ATP synthase? Flow of protons across a membrane **Explore the alternate pathways in which organic compounds are broken down within the body** - Describe ATP formation in terms of fermentation Glycolysis 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, 2 NADH produce 2 ATP - Why does fermentation of glucose yield less ATP than aerobic respiration? Aerobic is complicated 60 different types of proteins required. Fermentation simpler faster uses fewer cellular recourses. - Understand the differences between aerobic respiration and fermentation types: - What are the reactants and products of Lactic acid fermentation? Reactants 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, and 2 NADH produce 2 ATP and lactate - What are the reactants and products of Alcoholic fermentation? Reactants 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, and 2 NADH produce 2 ATP, ethanol, and CO2 Notes: Ends in a's is an enzyme Peroxisomes breaking down toxins 3 units of sugar or more are complex carbs Energy in the body is ATP \*Difference between reactants and products\* C6H12O6 + O2 = CO2 + H2O + 36ATP Proteins that become denatured make prions Cofactors - associate with an enzyme and are necessary for its function Coenzymes are organic cofactors that can change (ATP) Electron transfer chain - slow release of energy In fermentation, ATP is formed by glycolysis only Net yield of 2 ATP per glucose molecule Energy only flows in **one direction** Homeostasis- when blood sugar levels are too low, the pancreas releases glucagon. (Glucose to Glycogen when too much sugar, glycogen to glucose too little sugar) Negative feedback -- a variable triggers a counteracting response to a return the body to setpoints All cells contain **DNA, Cytosol, and a membrane (plasma or phospholipid)** Independent variable -- the **one variable** that is **changed** to determine the outcome of the other variables Dependent variable -- changes **as a result of the independent variable** Polymers are broken down by hydrolysis Covalent bond -- chemical bond in which two atoms share electrons