Students' Outline - Unit 2 PDF

Lesson Outline INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Developmental psychology covers the growth, change and consistency of an individual though the lifespan. Growth covers the physical change or quantitative change. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Development refers to systematic co...

Lesson Outline INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Developmental psychology covers the growth, change and consistency of an individual though the lifespan. Growth covers the physical change or quantitative change. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Development refers to systematic continuity and changes that happen between conception and death. The approach is described as “systematic,” as it implies the development in orderly, patterned, and relatively enduring, change (Shaffer and Kipp, 2012). Development is described as systematic changes and continuities in the individual that occur between conception and death, also known as "womb to tomb" (Sigelman & Rider, 2010). Sources of Development: Maturation - developmental changes in the body or behavior that is a result of aging process Learning - a permanent change in behavior that is contributed from one’s experiences or practice. LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT The Life-Span Perspective Life-span perspective is a perception that development is lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual. Life-span development is the scientific study of human development as a continuous process that occurs throughout one's life (Papalia & Martorell, 2021). Components of the Life-span Perspective (Paul Baltes) Development is Lifelong. Development occurs throughout an individual’s entire life Development is Multidimensional. Development covers the dynamic interaction of factors like physical, emotional, and psychosocial development. Development is Multidirectional. During development some aspect in an individual like skills were developed while were underdeveloped. Development is Plastic. Characteristics of development can be changeable. Development is Multidisciplinary. Other discipline shares interest in the study of human development. Development is Contextual. Development is influenced by different factors (historical, economic, social and cultural factors). Goals of Human Development As the field of human development evolved, its goals expanded to include description, explanation, prediction, and intervention. DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT Biological/Physical processes are changes in an individual’s physical nature. Cognitive processes are changes in an individual’s thought, intelligence, and language. Psychosocial processes are changes in an individual’s interpersonal relationships, emotions, and personality Each domain impacts the others. They are separated but interrelated. Periods of the Life Span/Development The division of life into periods is a social construct: a belief or practice developed by a particular culture or civilization. Typical Major Developments in Eight Periods of Human Development (Papalia & Martorell, 2021; Santrock, 2019) Age Period Description Physical Developments Cognitive Developments Psychosocial Developments Prenatal Period It includes significant Conception occurs Abilities to learn Fetus responds to (Conception to growth—from a single by normal and remember and mother’s voice and birth) cell to an organism with fertilization or to respond to develops a a brain and behavioral other means. sensory stimuli are preference for it. capabilities—and occurs The genetic developing. over the course of endowment around 9 months. interacts with environmental Prepared by: Karen Jann M. Aquino, RN, RPm, MA Psy and Vincent Jan Mikhael J. Esteban, RPm 1  influences from the start. Basic body structures and organs form; brain growth spurt begins. Physical growth is the most rapid in the life span. Vulnerability to environmental influences is great. Infancy and Birth to 18 or 24 All senses and Abilities to learn Attachments to Toddlerhood months body systems and remember are parents and others (birth to age 3) The time of operate at birth to present, even in form. extreme varying degrees. early weeks. Self-awareness dependence on The brain grows in Use of symbols and develops. adults. complexity and is ability to solve Shift from Many psychological highly sensitive to problems develop dependence toward activities, like as environmental by end of second autonomy occurs. language, symbolic influence. year. Interest in other reasoning, Physical growth Comprehension and children increases. sensorimotor and development use of language coordination, and of motor skills are develop rapidly. social learning, are rapid. just in their early stages. Toddler is typically used to describe any child from roughly 1 ½ to 3 years of age. Toddlers are in the transitory stage between early childhood and infancy. Early “Preschool years” Growth is steady; Thinking is Self-concept and Childhood Learn to be self- appearance somewhat understanding of (ages 3 to 6) sufficient and care becomes slenderer egocentric but emotions become for themselves, and proportions understanding of more complex; self- acquire school more adultlike. other people’s esteem is global. readiness skills Appetite perspectives grows. Independence, (following diminishes, and Cognitive initiative, and self- instructions and sleep problems are immaturity results control increase. identifying letters), common. in some illogical Gender identity and spend a lot of Handedness ideas about the develops. time playing with appears; fine and world. Play becomes more their peers. gross motor skills Memory and imaginative, more First grade usually and strength language improve. elaborate, and signifies the end of improve. Intelligence usually more social. early childhood. becomes more Altruism, predictable. aggression, and Preschool fearfulness are experience is common. common, and Family is still the kindergarten focus of social life, experience is more but other children so. become more important. Middle and Late “Elementary school Growth slows. Egocentrism Self-concept Childhood years” diminishes. becomes more (ages 6 to 11) Prepared by: Karen Jann M. Aquino, RN, RPm, MA Psy and Vincent Jan Mikhael J. Esteban, RPm 2  They master the Strength and Children begin to complex, affecting core abilities of athletic skills think logically but self-esteem. reading, writing, improve. concretely. Coregulation and arithmetic Respiratory Memory and reflects gradual while also being illnesses are language skills shift in control from formally common, but increase. parents to child. introduced to the health is generally Cognitive gains Peers assume greater world and better than at any permit children to central importance. its culture. other time in the benefit from formal Achievement life span. schooling. becomes a Some children show prominent element special educational in the child's life, needs and strengths. and self-control improves. Adolescence The developmental Physical growth Ability to think Search for identity, (Ages 11 to period of transition and other changes abstractly and use including sexual about from childhood to are rapid and scientific reasoning identity, becomes 20) early adulthood profound. develops. central. It starts with Reproductive Immature thinking Relationships with significant physical maturity occurs. persists in some parents are changes—dramatic Major health risks attitudes and generally good. increases in height arise from behaviors. Peer group may and weight, behavioral issues, Education focuses exert a positive or changes in body such as eating on preparation for negative influence. contour, and the disorders and drug college or vocation. development of abuse. sexual features including breast enlargement, pubic and facial hair growth, and deepening of the voice. The pursuit of independence and identity are important. Thought is more logical, abstract, and idealistic. More time is spent away from the family. Emerging and The transition from Physical condition Thought and moral Personality traits Young adolescence to peaks, then judgments become and styles become Adulthood adulthood declines slightly. more complex. relatively stable, (Ages 20 to 40) Experimentation Lifestyle choices Educational and but changes in and exploration influence health. occupational personality may be define the choices are made, influenced by life emerging adult. sometimes after stages and events. Many are still period of Intimate deciding on their exploration. relationships and work route, personal lifestyles identity, and are established but lifestyle. (Jensen, may not be lasting. 2018; Padilla- Most people marry, Walker & Nelson, and most become 2017). parents. It is a time for achieving personal and financial independence, succeeding in a job, and, for many, Prepared by: Karen Jann M. Aquino, RN, RPm, MA Psy and Vincent Jan Mikhael J. Esteban, RPm 3  choosing a mate, learning to live intimately with that person, creating a family, and raising children. Middle It is a time to Slow deterioration Mental abilities Sense of identity Adulthood increase personal of sensory abilities, peak: expertise and continues to (Ages 40 to 65) and social health, stamina, practical problem- develop; midlife involvement and and strength may solving skills are transition may responsibility; to begin, but high. occur (sandwich help the next individual Creative output may generation). generation become differences are decline but improve Dual competent, mature wide. in quality (increase responsibilities of individuals; and to Women experience in quality, decrease caring for children achieve and menopause. in quantity). and parents may maintain For some, career cause stress. professional success and earning Launching of fulfillment. powers peak; for children leaves others, burnout or empty nest. career change may occur. Late Adulthood It is a period for life Most people are Most people are Retirement from (Ages 65 and review, retirement, healthy and active, mentally alert. workforce may over) and adjusting to although health Although occur and may offer new social and physical intelligence and new options for use responsibilities abilities generally memory may of time. while diminishing decline. deteriorate in some People develop strength and Slowing of reaction areas, most people more flexible health. time affects some find ways to strategies to cope Has the longest aspects of compensate. with personal span of any phase functioning. losses and of development, impending death. and as previously Relationships with said, the number of family and close people in this age friends can provide group is increasing important support. rapidly. Search for meaning in life assumes central importance. Four ages (Baltes, 2006; Willis & Schaie, 2006): First age: Childhood and adolescence Second age: Prime adulthood, ages 20 through 59 Third age: Approximately 60 to 79 years of age Fourth age: Approximately 80 years and older Three distinct developmental patterns according to K. Warner Schaie (2016) that provide a depiction of how aging can contain individual variations: Most persons have normal aging, with psychological functioning peaking in early middle age, remaining relatively stable until the late fifties and early sixties, and then gradually dropping until the early 1980s. People who experience a greater-than-average drop in their adult years are considered to be pathologically aging. Individuals with successful aging experience extended periods of positive physical, cognitive, and socioemotional progress, with deterioration happening later in life than the general population. Significance of Age Age and Happiness According to some research, it is U-shaped, negatively correlated, and positively correlated. Conception of Age According to some life-span experts, chronological age is not very relevant to understanding a person’s psychological development. Prepared by: Karen Jann M. Aquino, RN, RPm, MA Psy and Vincent Jan Mikhael J. Esteban, RPm 4  Age does not matter There are other “Ages” other than chronological age Biological age is a person's age based on their biological health. It entails understanding the functional capabilities of a person's vital organs. Psychological age refers to an individual's adaptive capacity in comparison to others of the same chronological age. The term "social age" refers to the social roles and expectations that come with being a certain age. Consider the "mother" role and the associated actions. Developmental Issues The nature-nurture debate centers on the extent to which nature and nurture influence developmental outcomes. A social construction is an idea or practice that is unique to a specific culture or society (Santrock, 2019). The stability-change debate encompasses whether early traits and characteristics persist throughout life or change (Santrock, 2019). Continuity-discontinuity investigates the extent to which evolution involves either gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity) (Santrock, 2019). Influences on Development Heredity, Environment, and Maturation. Heredity refers to inborn characteristics inherited from biological parents. The environment encompasses non-hereditary or experiential impacts on development. Maturation is the normal course of physical and behavioral changes (Papalia & Martorell, 2021). Epigenetics is the study of how our genes "change" as we develop or as a result of environmental factors. Maturation Theory (by Arnold Gesell) He used the term "maturation" to refer to a genetically activated developmental process. According to the notion, the rate of development in children is primarily determined by the development of their nervous system. CONTEXT OF DEVELOPMENT FAMILY Nuclear Family. A two-generation household consists of one or two parents and their biological, adopted, or stepchildren (Papalia & Martorell, 2021). Extended Family. A multigenerational family network includes parents, siblings, and other relatives who occasionally share a house with an extended family (Papalia & Martorell, 2021). SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS AND NEIGHBORHOOD SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS (SES) A family's socioeconomic status (SES) is determined by its income and the educational and professional backgrounds of the adults who live there. SES indirectly influences these processes and results via related variables such as the sorts of homes and neighborhoods people reside in, as well as the quality of nutrition, healthcare, and education they have access to. RISK FACTORS. Conditions that increase the likelihood of a negative developmental outcome. RACE/ETHNICITY CULTURE A culture encompasses a society's or group's complete way of life, including conventions, traditions, beliefs, values, language, and tangible items. All of these are taught behaviors that parents pass down to their children. It is always changing (a cultural shift), often due to contact with other cultures (Papalia & Martorell, 2021). Ethnic groups. An ethic group is a collection of people who share genealogy, ethnicity, religion, language, or national origins and work together to promote a feeling of common identity. Ethnic gloss. Overgeneralization of an ethnic or cultural group that obscures internal differences (Papalia & Martorell, 2021). Race. Race influences "how individuals are treated, where they live, their employment opportunities, the quality of their health care, and whether they can fully participate" in their community Prepared by: Karen Jann M. Aquino, RN, RPm, MA Psy and Vincent Jan Mikhael J. Esteban, RPm 5 GENDER Gender roles and expectations can influence an individual's development and lead to differences in experiences based on gender (Papalia & Martorell, 2021). THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT Previously, developmentalists gave little thought to the historical environment or the time period in which people lived. Then, as early longitudinal studies of childhood advanced into adulthood, researchers began to concentrate on how individual events associated with time and place influence the path of people's lives. Today, historical context is an important part of development study (Papalia & Martorell, 2021). TIMING OF INFLUENCES: CRITICAL OR SENSITIVE PERIODS Imprinting. Instinctive type of learning in which a young animal develops an attachment to the first moving object it sees—typically its mother—during a crucial stage of early development (Papalia & Martorell, 2021). Critical period. A specific point in time when the presence or absence of an event has a specific impact on development. Plasticity. Range of modifiability of performance Sensitive periods. Periods of development during which an individual is especially receptive to specific types of experiences. Critical Period Sensitive Period A time when it is essential for an animal to be Less sensitive than critical period exposed to a specific stimulus to develop normally Very short in duration No exact time frame With well-defined beginning and end points Results are not necessarily as dramatic or irreversible Effects are irreversible Humans are especially responsive/open to experiences (ex. Adolescence) THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT BASIC THEORETICAL ISSUES ISSUE 1: IS DEVELOPMENT ACTIVE OR REACTIVE? Psychologists who believe in reactive development see the developing child as a hungry sponge that absorbs events and is molded by them over time. Psychologists that believe in active development claim that people construct their own experiences and are eager to learn about the world around them. Things do not merely happen to them; they play an active role in shaping their reality. Mechanistic model. An approach that perceives human development as a series of predictable responses to stimulus. Organismic model. Human development is viewed as an internal process beginning by an active organism and occurring in a series of qualitatively distinct stages. ISSUE 2: IS DEVELOPMENT CONTINUOUS OR DISCONTINUOUS? Mechanist theorists view development as continuous, occurring in small, incremental phases. Development is always guided by the same processes, which include the incremental refinement and extension of early talents into later abilities, allowing one to forecast future traits based on past performance. This is referred to as quantitative change—a change in number or quantity, such as height, weight, or vocabulary size. Organismic theorists view development as discontinuous, with the appearance of new phenomena that are difficult to predict based on previous functioning. According to this viewpoint, development at all stages of life differs fundamentally. It is a change in type, structure, or organization, not just in quantity. This form of change is referred to as qualitative change. Organismic theorists support stage theories, which view development as occurring in a sequence of different stages, much like stair steps. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES OF DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVE 1: PSYCHOANALYTIC Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory as the child matures biologically, their psychic energy of the sex instinct (libido) shifts from one part of the body to another, wherein there is a quest to please different biological needs. fixations, a persistent focus of the id’s pleasure-seeking energies that influences the earlier stage of psychosexual development. Prepared by: Karen Jann M. Aquino, RN, RPm, MA Psy and Vincent Jan Mikhael J. Esteban, RPm 6  The Psychosexual Stages STAGES AGE RANGE EROGENOUS ZONES FIXATIONS ORAL STAGE Birth to 1 year Mouth Chronic thumb sucker Chain smoker Gum-chewing Nail-biting ANAL STAGE 1 to 3 years Bowel and Bladder Control Anal-retentive individuals: overly obsessed with orderliness and tidiness Anal-expulsive individuals: messy and disorganized PHALLIC STAGE 4 to 6 years Genitals Overly vanity exhibitionistic sexually aggressive LATENCY STAGE 6 to Puberty Sexual feelings are inactive GENITAL STAGE Puberty to Death Maturing Sexual Interests Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Each stage has a unique developmental task that confronts individuals during life crisis that needs resolution. Stages of Psychosocial Development STAGE CRISIS IMPORTANT DEVELOPMENT OUTCOME VIRTUE EVENTS DEVELOPED INFANCY Trust vs. Feeding Sense of trust when Failure: Mistrust Hope (Birth to 18 Mistrust caregivers provide months) reliability, care, and affection. EARLY Autonomy vs. Toilet Training Sense of personal Success: Feelings of Will CHILDHOOD Shame and control over physical autonomy (2 to 3 years) Doubt skills and a sense of Failure: Feelings of independence. shame and doubt PRESCHOOL Initiative vs. Exploration Children need to begin Success Sense of Purpose (3 to 5 years) Guilt asserting control and purpose power over the Failure: Sense of guilt environment. SCHOOL AGE Industry vs. School Children need to cope Success: Sense of Competency (6 to 11 years) Inferiority with new social and competence. academic demands. Failure: Feelings of inferiority ADOLESCENSE Identity vs. Social Teens need to develop Success: Ability to Fidelity (12 to 18 Role Confusion relationships a sense of self and stay true to yourself years) personal identity. Failure: Role confusion and a weak sense of self YOUNG Intimacy vs. Relationships Young adults need to Success: Strong Love ADULTHOOD Isolation form intimate, loving relationships (19 to 40 relationships with Failure: loneliness years) other people. and isolation MIDDLE Generativity Work and Adults needs to create Success: Leads to Care ADULTHOOD vs. Stagnation Parenthood or nurture things that feelings of usefulness (40 to 65 will outlast them, often and accomplishment years) by having children or Failure: Shallow creating a positive involvement in the change that benefits world other people. MATURITY Ego Integrity Reflection on Older adults need to Success: Leads to Wisdom (65 to death) vs. Despair Life look back on life and feelings of wisdom feel a sense of Failure: Regret, fulfillment. bitterness, and despair PERSPECTIVE 2: LEARNING (PAPALIA & MARTORELL, 2021) A. BEHAVIORISM is a learning theory that stresses the predictable role of the environment in producing observable behavior. Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a stimulus that does not typically elicit a response is associated with another stimulus that does. Prepared by: Karen Jann M. Aquino, RN, RPm, MA Psy and Vincent Jan Mikhael J. Esteban, RPm 7  Burrhus Frederic Skinner’s Operant Conditioning. Behavior occurrence results from the consequences of behavior made. A behavior followed by a reward will most likely to recur while a behavior followed by a punishment will recur less likely. o Reinforcement is the process of strengthening a behavior so that it is more likely to be repeated. o Punishment is the process of weakening a behavior such that it is less likely to be repeated. B. ALBERT BANDURA’S SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY (SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY) cognitive processes are linked to the environment and behavior. people cognitively represent the behavior of others and adopt the behavior themselves.. Three elements that operates interactively: behavior the person/cognition environment PERSPECTIVE 3: COGNITIVE JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY children undergo four stages of cognitive development while they actively construct their understanding of the world (Santrock, 2019). The sensorimotor stage (Birth to about 2 years of age) Infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating their sensory experiences and physical actions The preoperational stage (2 to 7 years of age) Children starts to characterize the world with words, images and drawings. The concrete operational (7 to 11 years of age) Children can reason logically when the it can be applied to specific or concrete examples. The formal operational stage (11 and 15 and continues through adulthood) Individuals begin to think in abstract, idealistic and more logical ways. LEV VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL COGNITIVE THEORY that children actively construct their knowledge and that their social interaction and culture plays important roles in their cognitive development (Cherry, 2020). The Zone of Proximal Development the term for the range of tasks that are too difficult for a child to master alone but can be learned with guidance and assistance from adults or more-skilled children. The lower limit is the level of skill reached by the child working independently. The upper limit is the level of additional responsibility the child can accept with the assistance of an able instructor (Clara, 2017; Holzman, 2017). Scaffolding altering the level of support to the child. THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING APPROACH It is a method of studying cognitive development that involves observing and examining the mental processes involved in perception and information processing. The information processing approach attempts to explain cognitive development by examining the processes involved in making sense of new information and effectively performing tasks, such as attention, memory, planning strategies, decision-making, and goal-setting. PERSPECTIVE 4: CONTEXTUAL URIE BRONFENBRENNER’S BIOECOLOGICAL MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT the developing individual with his/her genetic makeup and biological and psychological characteristics, is embedded in a series of environmental systems. The Four Environmental Systems 1. The microsystem is the situation in which the individual lives. The mesosystem contains the linkages between two or more microsystems. 2. The exosystem consists of linkage between a social setting in which the individual does not have an active role and the individual’s immediate setting. 3. The macrosystem encompasses the culture in which individuals live. Prepared by: Karen Jann M. Aquino, RN, RPm, MA Psy and Vincent Jan Mikhael J. Esteban, RPm 8 4. The chronosystem covers the patterns of environmental events, transitions of life course, and sociohistorical circumstances. PERSPECTIVE 5: EVOLUTIONARY/SOCIOBIOLOGICAL Wilson (1975) proposed the evolutionary/sociobiological approach, which focuses on the evolutionary and biological underpinnings of behavior. It is influenced by Darwin's theory of evolution. According to Darwin, species evolved through the processes of survival of the fittest and natural selection. Individuals with heritable qualities that are better adapted to their settings survive and reproduce more than those who are not as well adapted. Ethology is the study of the various adaptive behaviors of animal species that have developed to better their chances of survival. Evolutionary psychology is the application of Darwin's principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest to individual behavior. References Papalia, D. E., & Martorell, G. (2014). Experience Human Development (13th ed.). McGraw Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121 Santrock, J. (2018). Life-Span Development (17th ed.). McGraw Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121 Shaffer, D., & Kipp, K. (2012). Developmental Psychology: Childhood and Adolescence (9th ed.). Singapore: Wadsworth/ Cengage Learning Sigelman, C. (2013). Life-Span Human Development. Singapore: Wadsworth/ Cengage Learning Prepared by: Karen Jann M. Aquino, RN, RPm, MA Psy and Vincent Jan Mikhael J. Esteban, RPm 9