Lecture Notes on Chemical Elements PDF

## B11. Group VIA -- The Oxygen Group * VIA - O, S, Se, Te * "Chalcogens" - ore-forming ## B11.1 Oxygen * **Synonyms:** * "yne" (8th century Chinese) * empyreal air or fire air (C.W. Scheele) * dephlogisticated air (J. Priestley) * named Oxygen - "acid former" (A. Lavosier) * **P...

## B11. Group VIA -- The Oxygen Group * VIA - O, S, Se, Te * "Chalcogens" - ore-forming ## B11.1 Oxygen * **Synonyms:** * "yne" (8th century Chinese) * empyreal air or fire air (C.W. Scheele) * dephlogisticated air (J. Priestley) * named Oxygen - "acid former" (A. Lavosier) * **Properties:** * Diatomic molecule, O₂ * Colorless, odorless, tasteless gas * Constitutes 20% by weight of air * Contributes about 8/9 by weight of water * Most abundant element in the human body by weight * 3rd most abundant element in the universe ## B11.2 Sulfur * **Synonyms:** * "Brimstone", "Burning stone" * "Phlogiston" - principle of combustibility * **Properties:** * A pale yellow, odorless and brittle solid * **Industrial Uses:** * Production of sulfuric acid * vulcanize natural rubbers * **Allotropes:** * Crystalline (Flowers of sulfur or Sublimed sulfur) * Rhombic sulfur or alpha sulfur * Monoclinic sulfur or beta sulfur * Amorphous * Liquid sulfur (Plastic sulfur) * **Uses:** * Cathartic * Parasiticide in scabies * Stimulant in alopecia * Fumigation * Treatment of skin diseases * Precipitated sulfur * "lac sulfur" or "milk of sulfur" * Preferably for external applications * Sublimed sulfur * "Flowers of sulfur" * Washed sulfur * Preferably for internal applications * Sulfurated lime solution * Vleminckx' solution * Alkaline sulfur ointment * Scabicide * Compound sulfur ointment * "Wilkinson's ointment", "Hebra's Itch ointment" * Scabicide * Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) * Hydrosulfuric acid * a gas that smells like rotten eggs * found in volcanic vapors * Sulfur trioxide (SO₃) * Used to manufacture sulfuric acid * Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) * "Oil of vitriol" * Dehydrating agent, acidifier * Sulfurous acid (H₂SO₃) * a major component of acid rain ## B11.3 Selenium and Tellurium * Greek word Selene "MOON" * due to close resemblance to Tellurium Tellus - "EARTH" * Pronounced as si-LEE-nee-em * **Actions:** * Similar to arsenic (intestinal irritation) * Toxic doses → paralysis of blood vessels * Selenic acid (H₂SeO₄) * Only single acid that can dissolve gold * Strong oxidizing agent * Selenium disulfide (SeS₂) * Antifungal shampoo for dandruff ## B12. Group VIB -- The Chromium Group * VIB - Cr, Mo, W, U ## B12.1 Chromium * Greek word - "Color", compounds are highly colored * **Uses:** * Hardening of steel * Coating to protect against corrosion * Chromium trioxide * "Chromic anhydride", "Chromic acid" * USP Caution: "Should not be brought into intimate contact with organic substances, as serious explosions are likely to result" * As dilute solution - astringent * Chromic oxide - green * Chromic hydroxide - blue * Chromic nitrate - purplish red * Chromic phosphate - bluish-green * Potassium chromate * Indicator for titrimetric analysis of Ag compounds * Potassium dichromate * Used in treatment of gastric ulcers * Used in tanning and bleaching ## B12.2 Molybdenum * Never used in medicine * Compounds are used for determination of phosphates (e.g. ammonium molybdate) ## B12.3 Tungsten * Wolfram * Used as filaments in electric light bulbs * Phosphotungstic acid * Used as qualitative test reagent for alkaloids ## B12.4 Uranium * Radioactive * Uranyl nitrate * Used in treatment of spreading sluggish ulcers * Used for titrimetric analysis of phosphoric acid ## B13. Group VIIA -- The Fluorine Group * Halogens - "Salt-formers" * Univalent, -1 ## B13.1 Fluorine * Latin fluo, "to flow" * a pale yellow gas having a characteristic odor similar to ozone and chlorine * Most reactive, electronegative element * **Fluorine, F₂** * Best oxidizing agent among the halogens * **Hydrofluoric acid** * Attacks or etches glass → "frosted surface" * **Sodium fluoride or Calcium fluoride** * Antiseptic at low concentration * Dental prophylactic - prevents dental carries * Fluorosis - in white or brown speckles on teeth * Water disinfectant * **Zn fluosilicate solution** * rinse for washing diaper acting as bactericide * **CCI₂F₂** * Freon-12 (a chlorofluorocarbon, CFC) * Refrigerant * **Teflon** * polymer of tetrafluoroethylene * used as container of HF ## B13.2 Chlorine * "dephologisticated muriatic acid" * "oxygenated muriatic acid" * greenish yellow gas having a suffocating odor and astringent taste * **Sodium hypochlorite** * 5% NaOCI - laundry bleaching agent * Labarraque's Solution * NaOCI diluted with equal volume of water * Oxidizing and bleaching agent * Modified Dakin's solution * Diluted NaOCl solution (0.5%) * Disinfectant, irrigating solution for wound * **Hyclorite** * Chlorinated soda solution * Disinfectant, irrigating solution for wound * **Bleaching Powder** * Chlorinated Lime, Chloride of Lime * CaOCI(CI) H₂O * Disinfectant, bleaching agent * **Halazone** * Water disinfectant * **Chlorine dioxide** * 2.5x more effective than chlorine in water disinfection * Destroys unpleasant tastes and odors in water * Not economical * **Hydrochloric acid** * "muriatic acid" * neutralizing, stabilizing or solubilizing agent * **Diluted HCI** * gastric acidifier * **Na, K and Ca chlorides** * electrolyte replenisher (Ringer's solution) * **Sodium chloride (sodii chloridum)** * "Rock salt" * Electrolyte replenishment * Renders solutions to be isotonic * Prescription "fiat isotonic collyrium" * Normal saline solution (NSS), 0.9% NaCl * Physiological salt solution * **Strong solution of NaCl** * emetic * **Ammonium Chloride ** * "Muriate of Ammonia, Sal ammoniac" * Expectorant, diuretic ## B13.3 Bromine * dark reddish-brown fuming liquid with unpleasant odor * **Inorganic bromides** * CNS depressant, sedative, hypnotic * Toxicity: Psychic weakness, poor memory, sexual impotence * Bromism - bromide rashes * Replaced by phenobarbitals * **Bromine, Br₂** * Very irritant poison and powerful escharotic * Not used in medicine * **Koppeschaar's Solution** * 0.1 N bromine solution * Used in determination of phenols ## B13.4 lodine * grayish black solid having metallic luster and characteristic penetrating odor * Solubility: (1g: 2950 mL of water) * reddish brown in polar solvents (water) * violet in nonpolar solvents (CS₂, CCI₄, chloroform) * Elementary I₂ is toxic * Antidote: cornstarch or sodium thiosulfate * **Strong lodine solution** * "Lugol's solution" * 5% jodine solution * Local germicide * Histolytic - destroys tissues * Anti-goiterogenic * Usually contain Nal or KI * enhance the solubility of iodine through the formation of triiodide ion * **lodine solution** * 2% iodine solution with Nal (more preferable than KI, more tolerable in tissues) * **lodine tincture** * 2% iodine solution in 50% alcohol w/ Nal * More irritating than iodine solution * Does not freeze in cold weather * **Sodium iodide (sodii iodidum)** * Solubilizing agent in iodine solution * Histolytic * Expectorant * **lodized oil** * lodine in vegetable oil * Acts as iodide * **Hydroiodic acid syrup** * expectorant * **Phenolated lodine solution** * "Boulton's solution", "French mixture", "Carbolized iodine solution" * Disinfectant, counter-irritant * **lodine-131** * radioactive iodine for thyroid diseases and cancer ## B14. Group VIIB - The Manganese Group ## B14.1 Manganese * chemically and geologically related to iron * **Manganous citrate** * Soluble manganese citrate * Tonic * Peptonized iron and manganese solution * Increases hematinic action of iron * **Manganese dioxide** * Alterative tonic * Treatment of amenorrhea - absence of menstruation * **Manganous carbonate** * Treatment of anemia * **Potassium permanganate** * Oxidizing agent * Disinfectant, deodorant ## B14.2 Technetium * Former name "ekamanganese, Em" * Greek word Technetos - "artificial" * Technetium-97 - First artificial element produced * No natural biological role and is not normally found in the human body. * Technetium-99m * a radioactive tracer for medical imaging ## B15. Group VIIIA - The Neon Group * The Noble Gases * Inert gas/elements * Chemically inert/stable/unreactive * Monoatomic gases * All except Rn occur in the atmosphere * Radon - produced during natural decay of radium * **Helium – "sun"** * Mixed with anesthetic gases * Artificial air = 20% O₂ + 80% He * **Neon - "new"** * Used in signs due to bright reddish-orange light * **Argon - "lazy"** * used to displace oxygen- and moisture-containing air in packaging material to extend the shelf-lives of the contents * **Krypton – "hidden"** * used in some photographic flashes for high speed photography * **Xenon "stranger"** * Used as a general anesthetic (more costly) * **Radon** * Anticancer ## B16. Group VIIIB Elements ## B16.1 Nickel * German word Kupfernickel - "Satan or Devil's Copper" * Used extensively in the form of alloys for utensils, coins, surgical instruments * German silver: Ni + Cu + Zn ## B16.2 Palladium * Used as adsorbent for hydrogen in gas analysis * Alloys with gold jewelry, dental practice, coating reflectors ## B16.3 Platinum * Spanish name platina- "silver" * Resistant to corrosion * Dissolves in aqua regia * Used in the preparations of crucibles, dishes, and platinum wires * More expensive jewelry than gold * Platinum black * Finely divided form * a powerful catalyst ## ORGANOPLATINUM COMPOUNDS * **Cisplatin** * Anticancer agent * Binds to DNA and causes cross-linking, which triggers the programmed cell death (apoptosis) * Discovered by Rosenberg in 1965 serendipitously * Side effects: * Nausea and Vomiting * Nephrotoxicity - kidney poisoning * Dose-limiting * Ototoxicity - Loss of high-frequency hearing * Peripheral neuropathy - damage to nerves of the peripheral nervous system * Myelosuppression - Bone marrow suppression; reduces the patients' WBC count and makes them susceptible to infections * **Carboplatin** * 2nd Generation Pt-based anticancer drug * less reactive and has less nephrotoxic and ototoxic * more myelosuppressive * **Oxaliplatin** * 3rd Generation Pt-based anticancer drug * Most effective in combination with: * 5-fluorouracil and leucovorin in the treatment of metastatic carcinomas of the colon/rectum * **Satraplatin** * Orally active, Convenient to the patient * Milder toxicity * No cross-resistance * Not approved by FDA ## B16.4 Iron * Latin name: Ferrum - "Strong" * Widely used metal * Low production cost * High strength * Steel: Fe + C * Chalybeate water * Iron-containing water * Occurrence: * Magnetite - Fe₃O₄ * Hematite - Fe₂O₃ * Pyrite - FeS₂ → "Fool's gold" * Exist as: * Elemental Iron * Pure iron is resistant to oxidation * Rusting (ferric oxide) is probably due to impurities * Ferrous salts, Fe⁺² * Divalent, Reduced form * Colorless in anhydrous form * Green in hydrated form * Reducing agents * Ferric salts, Fe⁺³ * Trivalent, Oxidized form * Yellowish to brown in anhydrous form * Oxidizing agents * Give red ppt with tannins * **Uses:** * Astringent * Styptic stops bleeding when applied to a wound. * Hematinic - stimulate RBC production * Black stool - common side effect of iron preparations * **Functions in Human Body** * Iron as an Essential Trace Element * Hemoglobin * oxygen-transport metalloprotein in RBC * Myoglobin * facilitates O₂ use and storage in muscles * Cytochromes * Transport electrons * Iron-Deficiency Anemia * Lethargy and weakness * Iron supplementation * **Ferric ammonium citrate** * 8x less effective than ferrous sulfate * **Ferric cacodylate** * Treatment of anemia requiring iron and arsenic * **Ferric chloride** * Astringent, styptic, hematinic * **Ferric oxide** * Red and yellow form * Colorant, simulate skin color (e.g. in Calamine) * **Ferrous carbonate** * Ferrous carbonate Mass * "Vallet's Mass" * Hematinic * Ferrous carbonate Pills * "Chalybeate pills", "Ferruginous Pills" * hematinic * **Ferrous sulfate** * most common, least expensive * common side effect: gastric discomfort * FeSO₄ 5H₂O * "Green vitriol" * **Ferrous gluconate** * Less gastric irritation than ferrous sulfate * **Ferrous fumarate** * most expensive * **Ferric hydroxide** * "dialyzed iron" * Antidote for Arsenic poisoning * **Ferrous ammonium sulfate** * "Mohr's salt" * Used as indicator in Ag titrations * **Potassium ferricyanide** * "Red prussiate of potash" * **Potassium ferrocyanide** * "Yellow prussiate of potash" * **Ferrous Ferricyanide (Fe₃[Fe(CN)₆]₂)** * "Turnbull's Blue" * **Ferric Ferrocyanide (Fe₄[Fe(CN)₆]₃)** * "Prussian blue" * Antidote for Thallium poisoning ## B16.5 Cobalt * German word der Kobold - "goblin or gnome" * Pinkish white metal * Stimulate hematopoiesis - formation of blood cellular components * Parenteral: BP lowering, capillary damage * Oral: vomiting and diarrhea * **Cobaltous oxide** * "Rinman's Green" * Paint pigment * **Cobalto-cobaltic oxide** * Astringent antiseptic powder * **Cobaltous chloride** * Basis for invisible or sympathetic inks * Turns blue when warmed ## B16.6 Rhodium * Alloy of Rh + Pt → harder, more durable than Pt alone ## B16.7 Osmium * Heaviest, densest element * **Osmium tetroxide** * "osmic acid" * Used for hardening and coloring (black) histological specimens ## B17. Hydrogen * "inflammable air" * Hydrogen - "water-producing" (A. Lavoisier) * An essential constituent of all acids * **H₂ gas** * A colorless, tasteless and odorless gas * Burns with a pale blue non-luminous flame * A reducing agent with Pd., Ni or Pt as catalyst * Obtained by; * Electrolysis of water containing caustic soda * Fractionation of water gas * Passing steam over incandescent iron * Reaction of some metals (Na, K) with water * **Uses:** * In Haber process for nitrogen fixation * Inflating balloons * Production of high temperature w/ oxygen * Hydrogenation of edible oils * **Isotopes of Hydrogen** * **Protium (Hydrogen-1)** * Most abundant, naturally-occurring * **Deuterium (Hydrogen-2)** * Naturally-occurring * **Tritium (Hydrogen-3)** * A radioactive tracer * **Deuterium oxide** * "Heavy water" * Used as tracer compound * **Mineral waters** * "Natural spring or well waters" * **Alkaline water** * w/ Na and Mg sulfates + NaHCO₃ * **Carbonated water** * Charged with CO₂ under pressure * **Chalybeate water** * w/ iron characterized by ferruginous taste * **Lithia water** * w/ lithium carbonates or chlorides * **Saline water** * "purgative water" * w/ Na and Mg sulfates + NaCl * **Sulfur water** * w/ hydrogen sulfide * **Siliceous water** * w/ alkali silicates