Information Age - STS121 Module 5 PDF

Module 5: Specific Issues in Science and Technology Lesson Information age 1 Objectives: By the end of the lessons, you must be able to: 1. create a timeline showing the history of the information age; 2. explain the effects of impacts of living in the informati...

Module 5: Specific Issues in Science and Technology Lesson Information age 1 Objectives: By the end of the lessons, you must be able to: 1. create a timeline showing the history of the information age; 2. explain the effects of impacts of living in the information age. Introduction The Information Age is considered a historic period in the 21st century. Characterized by the rapid shift from traditional industry, it is also called Computer Age, Digital and the New media age. It is marked by a very fast growth in communication and information technology. This age holds a significant influence as educators and learners. The invention of the computer which gave people access to information with the touch of a button. The internet has tuned society into homebodies and individuals who do everything from the comfort of their homes. People do their tasks only such as shopping, paying bills, working, education, entertainment and ordering food. Historical Development The information age also referred to as Computer Ages and New Media Age is a historic period in the 21st Century characterized by the rapid shift from traditional industry. It began around the 1970s and still going on today. This era brought about a time period in which people could access information and knowledge easily. As in the field of literature, the renaissance influenced this age by creating the idea inventions that led to modern ones. Information Age also referred to people, information and societies that chronicle the birth and growth of electronic information from ancient times to Samuel Morse's invention of the telegraph in the 1890s through the development of the telephone, radio, television and computers. There are four periods of the Information Age, namely: Pre-Mechanical – 3,000 BC 1450 A.D. Mechanical – 1450-1840 Electro-Mechanical – 1840-1940 Electronic/Information – 1940-present Some pioneers who belonged to these periods were Blaise Pascal, Alexander Graham Bell, Steven Wozmak, Steven Jobs, Bill Gates. Personal computers had become widespread by the end of the 1980s. They can be connected to local or national networks. Through a device called the modern, individual users could list their computers to a wealth of information using conventional phone lines. The internet was developed during the 1970s. In the early days, it was used mainly by scientists to communicate with other scientists. At this time, the internet users problem was speed. The development of the fiber-optic hastened the rate of sending message. In the 1990s, the world wide web was developed mainly for commercial purposes. New services were created to sell products. Now, airline tickets, hotel reservations, books and even cars and houses can be purchased online. Colleges and universities would post research data on the internet so students could find valuable information without leaving their homes. Claude Shannon is regarded as the Father of the Information Age. Living in the Information Age Effects/Impact Technology is increasingly playing a crucial role in the success of organizations particularly in school in this Information Age. The impact of IT has been enormous on various domains including education. Computers and the information they process and store have transformed every aspect of the society. Since we live in the Information Age, IT has become a part of our everyday lives. There have been tremendous changes in the ways people live work and play over the past three decades. IT is composed of computer, networks, mobile and wireless devices, satellite communications, robotics, videotext, cable television, electronic mail (e-mail), electronic gadget and automated office equipment. Technological innovation and entrepreneurship have been the key players in the changes that we experience. Everyday, we use technology in new ways. Computers are becoming increasingly affordable and they continue to be more powerful as information processing tools. Some of the advantages of Information Technology are: 1) Globalization It has brought the world closer together, led to sharing information more quickly and efficiently and enabled countries to share ideas and information with each other. 2) Communication It has made communication cheaper, quicker and more efficient. The use of the internet opened face-to-face communication from different parts of the world. 3) Cost effectiveness it has led to computerization of business processes and increased productivity that gave more profits, better pay and working conditions. 4) Creation of new jobs-It has led to the opening up of opportunity for computer programmers, system analysts, hardware and software developers and web designers. The Information Age has introduced changes in the different aspects of people's lives, because of the following: 1) emergence of online companies 2) creation of economically and stimulating businesses 3) more mature and educated people 4) reshaping governments with new technologies Application: a) Instruction: Create a timeline showing the history of the information age from 1940s to present. You can create it in a whole sheet of paper, take a picture, and upload it in the LMS. Here is an example of a timeline.  Lesson Biodiversity and the Healthy Society 2 Objectives: By the end of the lessons, you must be able to: 1. explain what biodiversity is; 2. create a collage showing the impacts of human technologies on biodiversity. 3. explain how loss of biodiversity will affect our society. Introduction Our Planet Earth share trillions of varied species. The different species of our plants and animals and the places they live is called biodiversity. All together they give us all our needs in our life like food, clear drinking water, crisp air, medicines and provide us our homes. Biodiversity is like a safety net. We take into consideration, the huge variety of animals and plants in our planet Earth as threads in the net. The more threads that adhere and intertwine, the net gets stronger, and the better nature can provide for us and less threats for a climate change. Unfortunately, people have been disregarding the safety and help of the net for decades. The forests were flattened to give way for farming. We have netted young fishes until their numbers have collapsed. Wetlands were bulldozed causing floods and wreak havocs. The great impact man has done for the very first time in human history is full understanding of when to start mending the affected net wherein our natural world we love and depend upon. There is still the need to reverse the losses of nature, but we need to move swiftly to avoid any catastrophic change. Biodiversity and the Healthy Society Biodiversity refers to the variety found in biota form genetic make-up of plants and animals to cultural diversity. Impact of Biodiversity to Human Health People depend so much on diversity for the needs of their daily lives in ways which are not often approved and appreciated. Human health ultimately depends upon ecosystem products and services (such as availability of fresh water, food, and fuel sources) which are requisite for good human health and productive livelihoods. Biodiversity loss can have significant direct human health impacts if ecosystem services are no longer adequate to meet social needs. Indirectly, changes in ecosystem services affect livelihoods, income, local migration, and on occasion, may even cause political conflict. Additionally, biophysical diversity of microorganisms, flora and fauna provides extensive knowledge which carry important benefits for biological, health, and pharmacological sciences. Significant medical and pharmacological discoveries are made through greater understanding of the earth's biodiversity. Loss in biodiversity may limit discovery of potential treatments for many diseases and health problems. The Impact of Biodiversity on Human Life The human species is just one of Earth's 1.9 million living life forms. It has arisen by the same mechanisms as other species. It has the same physical requirements as other, similar species. It is dependent for its survival on its successful interactions with Earth's plant and animal species. Ultimately, it is a subject to the same limitations to growth as any other species. However, humans are also unlike any other species because of their niche as thinking, planning, and technological beings. Due to their ability to use technology, the human population is growing virtually unchecked by the natural factors that limit other species populations. Human technologies have had significant impacts on the natural world by producing materials that pollute the air, water and soil. Its activities are increasingly displacing or destroying natural habitats and their ecological communities, reducing biodiversity and endangering the survival of many, if not all, Earth's living things. As a species, it is essential that we understand the necessity of preserving the natural environment and its living species as a means of ensuring our own survival. While some progress has been made in correcting certain environmental problems, much remains to be done. Education and environmental awareness on a global level is essential. Governments, industries, and the general public must come together with the long range impact of human activity that destroys the very fabric of biological life on Earth. Human Population Growth Unlike all other species, human population growth has risen at a very rapid rate over the past centuries. The development of medical technology has reduced the incidence of disease in many parts of the world; modern agriculture had reduced the incidence of disease in many parts of the world; modern agriculture had reduced the likelihood of starvation in developed nations. This rapid increase in human population and technology that supports that growth has put extreme pressures on the natural world, threatening the survival of natural species and habitats. In many less developed areas of the world, the human population has grown faster than the food supply, causing widespread famine that threatens to eliminate large portions of the populations. Poverty and hunger in these areas had led to the resurgence of diseases that have been all but eradicated in the world's developed nations. These same conditions have forced some people to abandon their homes in search of food and to be exposed to the elements, further reducing their ability to survive. Such occurrences are becoming more frequent and severe. It remains to be seen when similar collapses will occur in developed countries. Apparently, the human species is rapidly approaching a point where it will be unable to sustain continued growth. Pollution and Destruction in our Environment Technological and industrial processes have led to the production of chemicals and by- products that are harmful (toxic) to living things. Such toxic chemicals have contributed to our global environmental pollution. Examples of pollutants include acidic ions, pesticides. When they are released into the environment, these pollutants contaminate water, air, and / or soil, and make survival of natural species difficult of impossible. To that extent, humans are exposed to these pollutants, and we are also subject to their toxic effects. The industrial by-products such as dioxin pose similar dangers to many species, including humans the combining of acidic ions with atmospheric water has resulted in acid precipitation (acid rain), which has acidified lakes and disrupted natural ecosystems. Destruction of Habitat Humans have used their technologies to remove trees and other plant life from wide areas of their natural habitat for the purpose of creating agricultural lands, industrial zones, roadways, or residential and commercial developments. Humans have drained, filled, or redirected wetlands, ponds, streams and other natural water habitats for these same purposes. Collectively known as habitat destruction, these activities have had the effect of displacing plant and animal species important to the maintenance of a balanced ecosystem. Human agriculture has produced a variety of negative effects due to inattention to its impact on the natural environment. Failure to use cover crops (crops that protect soil from erosion) between planting cycles has exposed bare soil to erosion, resulting in loss of topsoil and sedimentation of water sources. Over cropping is the failure to allow soil to recover nutrients and organic matter content between plantings. Overgrazing is the practice of allowing large numbers of domestic animals to graze an area too small to support them. Exploitation of Animals and Plants Humans who have great desire to possess exotic animals and plants or their products have been enabled by modern transportation, communication and economic technologies. This resulted in the exploitation for exotic species of primates such as monkey, cats birds such as parrots and other pets. Some animals are killed for their horns, elephants for their tusks, tigers and other species for their pelts. Each species loss has impacted its ecosystem in a negative way. Each exploited species is to one degree or another, in danger of extinction because of this exploitation. In an activity known as direct harvesting, humans have removed plants from the ecosystem for their economic value without regard for the effect of its removal on the natural ecosystem. This removal has negatively impacted the ecosystem by decreasing biodiversity (variety of life) in these habitats. Forest trees were directly harvested from our mountains to provide lumber for building purposes, and denuded in the process allowing fragile soils to be washed away. This activity resulted in the destruction entire mountain habitats. Worldwide, direct harvesting activities for exotic hardwoods tropical rain forests has resulted in similar habitat destruction and loss of biodiversity. Signs of Environmental Contamination Many warning signs exist indicate that a dangerous disequilibrium is be created in our ecosystems. Some researchers suspect that toxic chemicals by-products, heavy metals, pesticides, hormones, pharmaceuticals and other contaminants are responsible for an increased frequency in deformation of illnesses, death of natural populations worldwide. An example is the dramatic decline and deformation in frog populations which have been observed in aquatic ecosystems around the world. The culprits suspected by some scientists are hormone-disrupting chemicals in agricultural runoff. Other examples include: reproductive cycle disruption in birds as a result of high concentrations of DDT and other pesticides. deaths and population declines of birds and fish linked to contamination from oil spills deaths and disorientation of marine mammals (tortoise and whales) possibly due to coastal pollutant runoff contaminated waters In our own species, adverse health effects linked to chemical exposure are increasingly prevalent among infancy and early childhood. These are the periods of vulnerability to environmental pollution, because they spend more energy, require more food, water, and oxygen per unit of mass than adults, hence young children are likely to take in and store more toxic chemicals per pound than adults. Recently, the incidence of birth defects and diseases linked to environmental pollution has risen among children living in environmentally- contaminated areas of the world. Childhood cancer has become the second leading cause of childhood deaths. Other health problems being experienced today by children living in contaminated communities include chronic lung disease and childhood asthma. Consumption of Energy Worldwide, industrialization has brought an increased demand for use of energy resources. It brought both the positive and the negative effects on humans and ecosystems. The world industrialized nations have used tremendous quantity of energy to fuel their business. Countries like the United States and England have long been the major consumers of energy. China, formerly a light user of energy resources, lately became a major consumer of petroleum as a source of energy to operate its growing economy. For sometime the source of energy has changed, with traditional water, wood, coal, and oil gradually being replaced with natural gas, wind, wave/tidal, nuclear, solar, geothermal and fuel cell technologies. The development of these energy sources often uses valuable agricultural land for the construction, storage and transport of energy they produce. Fossils for Fuels Fossil fuels are commonly used as an energy source in industrial processes for the past 200 years, include naturally occurring materials such as oil, coal and natural gas. These fuels are obtained from underground deposits formed million years ago by biological and geological processes, and these fossil fuels are not being replenished. The chemical by-products of fossil fuel combustion are released into the atmosphere and contribute to the worldwide air pollution as well as a phenomenon known as acid precipitation or acid rain. Acid precipitation results from combining of sulfur and nitrogen oxide ions with atmospheric water to produce sulfuric and nitric acids. When rain snow and sleet containing these acids fall on aquatic ecosystems they can significantly alter the acid/base chemistry. Any alteration often leads to elimination of acid/base sensitive species of fish and amphibians in the ecosystem. The burning of fossil fuels has also been linked to the phenomenon known as global warming. Genetically Modified Organism (GMO): Science, Health, and Politics Those on one side of the controversy argued that GM (Genetically Modified) foods could represent one of the biggest advances ever achieved in farming, while those in opposition believed that GM foods could trigger a wide variety of serious environmental and health problems. The scientific evidence supporting either view was far from complete and might not become so without field trials extending over several crop seasons. Public opinion remained deeply divided, sometimes bitterly so. The main proponents of GM foods are Americans, and the main skeptics are Europeans and Asians. American farmers have long planted GM crops and are by far the world's largest exporters of GM foods. Only in recent years have they encountered widespread analyses of the crops' benefits and drawbacks. Europe, by contrast, grows only small amounts of GM crops but has become the site of large-scale resistance. The Americans insist that their country has the highest food-safety standards in the world and that the new products have been thoroughly analyzed and approved by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Food and Drug Administration. They also point out that for a number of years Americans have been eating large amounts of genetically modified foods without suffering any apparent adverse effects. In addition, Americans protest against Europe's "artificial" trade barriers that limit imports of agricultural products, as evidenced by Europe's 1998 refusal to allow entry of certain genetically modified corn varieties, costing American farmers some $200 million in lost sales. Finally, a major concern in 2000 centered on public trust in both the scientists and the agribusiness leaders. Without greater public support, the GM industry in Europe is likely to remain undeveloped. Opinion polls consistently show that more than 80% of the public there do not want GM foods. As a result, many European food producers and suppliers alike. working to reduce or eradicate GM organisms in the food chain. They will almost certainly continue to do so until policy decisions on the GM issue are seen to be taken in light of reliable, comprehensive, and objective information--a resource that is in short supply thus far. Fortunately, product labeling, a critically important measure, is becoming widespread in Europe and is becoming more common in the U.S. are In response to this challenge, GM advocates need to improve their communications if public opinion is to be convinced that the advantages outweigh the risks. Efforts should be made to listen to, as well as speak to, the public. The issue is one not only of the public's understanding of science but also of scientists' understanding of the public. Some say that labelling would indicate that there is something wrong with the food. By the way, some 70 to 90 percent of processed food is genetically modified and has been that way for years. However, respected food policy experts like Marion Nestle say just label them, already, so people can choose. The battle has moved well beyond the realm of science, and its political impact on the health and food-conscious. Ethical Implications of GMO A number of ethical concerns over GM foods have been noted. These have affected public support of the products. These issues have triggered controversies and regulations pertaining to GM foods. It has the potential to trigger food allergies or disease in humans. Given that a gene could be extracted from an allergenic organism and placed in another one that typically does not cause allergies, a person may unknowingly be exposed to an allergen. In turn, this could lead to an allergic reaction. There is also the fear that new allergies could occur from the mixing of genes from two organisms. Disease is a major health worry with regards to GM foods. Given that some of the crops modified are done so with DNA from a bacterium or virus there is concern that a new disease may occur in humans who consume the GM food. With some GM crops having antibiotic-resistant marker genes there is also the worry that these genes could be passed on to microbes that cause disease and health problems in humans. With widespread antibiotic resistance currently already occurring, any new resistance could prove disastrous. The Potential Future of GMO The recent announcement that a genetically modified salmon had reached Canadian consumers was a rare reap forwards for GM foods. More than two decades after commercialization of GM plants, this is the first GM animal (fish) to reach the market. The fast-growing salmon can reach market size in 18 months, roughly half the time genetically modified counterpart and requires less feed. This could bring both business and environmental benefits and the approval may pave the way for other G.M. animals. Scientists are working on disease-resistant pigs, bird-flu resistant chickens, hornless dairy cows, and highly productive lamb this Passover; the history of genetically modified organism (GMO) has shown that it takes many years, plenty of innovation never make it. The very research program developing G.M. plants and animals have seldom make it to fruition and the market is dominated by a few types of modification. In the last few years, one has seen a rapid expansion in crops with 1 stacked traits that have gene for resistance to both herbicide and insects, and not in the near future this is the direction that G.M. agriculture will no doubt heading on.  Application: a) Instruction: Create a collage showing how human technologies impact biodiversity. b) Instruction: Answer the question in 3-4 sentences. Watch this supplementary video to learn more about biodiversity https://youtu.be/BSkk2R5psp4. 1) What is biodiversity and why is it important?  Lesson The Nano World 3 Objectives: By the end of the lessons, you must be able to: 1. create a timeline showing the history of the information age; 2. explain the effects of impacts of living in the information age. Introduction Nanoworld of science and technology is of great interest to governments, industries and academia. The prefix "nano" denotes sizes of the order of one billionth of a meter. "Nanostructure science and technology is a broad and interdisciplinary area of research and development activity that has been growing explosively worldwide in the past few years. It has the potential for revolutionizing the way in which materials and products are created and the range and nature of functionalities that can be accessed" (Siegel, 1999). The history of nanotechnology traces the development of the concepts and experimental work falling under the broad category of nanotechnology. Although nanotechnology is a relatively recent development in scientific research, the development of its central concepts happened over a longer period of time. The emergence of nanotechnology in the 1980s was caused by the convergence of experimental advances such as the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope in 1981 and the discovery of fullerenes in 1985, with the elucidation and popularization of a conceptual framework for the goals of nanotechnology. Defining the Terms The two terms often used in the literature with reference to the world of nano materials are nanoscience and nanotechnology. Nano materials denote divided matter." As Rao (1999) said, "if you take a piece of solid matter (say a metal) containing an Avogadro number of atoms and go on dividing it to smaller bits, you will ultimately end up with an atom of the substance. Before that, you will reach a stage of very tiny particles containing 100 to 10,000 atoms. Such particles with diameters of (1-50nm) (10-500) are referred to as nanoparticles. Nanomaterials exhibit properties entirely different from bulk materials and constitute materials of the future. Increased surface area and quantum effects are the two key factors that separate nanomaterials from bulk materials (The Royal Society and The Royal Academy of Engineering, 2004). A substance of size 3 nm has 50% of its atoms on the surface compared to a substance of size 30 nm with 5% of its atoms on its surface. As size decreases more quantum effects begin to manifest in the form of electrical, magnetic and optical properties. Nanoscience refers to the scientific study of materials of nanometer size, i.e., one billionth of a meter (The Royal Society, 1994). It is a combination of developments in solid state chemistry, synthetic chemistry, molecular biology, solid state physics and engineering, and scanning tunneling microscopy. According to Alfred Nordmann (cited in Schummer, 2003), it is a site- oriented technoscience approach that differs both from classical theory-driven and problem- driven (p. 2). For example, nanosized indium melts at much lower temperature than respective bulk metal (Allen, 2002). Copper in extremely thin layers, in the presence of magnetic field, becomes a poor conductor of electricity (Loder, 2005). Nanotechnology refers to various technologies to produce materials of extra high precision and dimensions on the scale of one-billionth of a meter. (Norio Taniguchi of Tokyo Science University is credited with coining the term "nanotechnology" in 1974). Nanotechnology "implies the ability to generate and utilize structures, components, and devices with a size range from about 0.1 nm (atomic and molecular scale) to about 100nm (or larger in some situations) by control at atomic molecular, and macromolecular levels" (Roco, 1999) One of the most interesting aspects of nanotechnology is building molecule-by-molecule materials similar to those produced by biological self-assembly, self-organization and self-regulation (Carraher, Jr. 1994). What is Nano World? To understand the nano world here are presented important personages who have contributed to the growth and study of the Nano World. The retroactive rediscovery of Feynman's "Plenty of Room" gave nanotechnology a packaged history that provided an early date of December 1959, plus a connection to the charisma and genius of Richard Feynman. Feynman's stature as a Nobel laureate and as an iconic figure in 20th century science surely helped advocates of nanotechnology Richard Feynman and provided a valuable intellectual link to the past. His paper on the Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing, and Computation, received the Association of American Publishers award for Best Computer Science Book of 1992 Drexler founded the Foresight Institute in 1986 with the mission of "Preparing for nanotechnology." Erick Drexler Nanotechnology and nanoscience got a boost in the early 1980s with two major developments: the birth of cluster science and the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope (STM). These developments led to the discovery of fullerenes in 1985 and the structural assignment of carbon nanotubes a few years later. Gerd Binnig Heinrich Rohrer The scanning tunneling microscope, an instrument for imaging surfaces at the atomic level, was developed in 1981 by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer at IBM Zurich Research Laboratory, for which they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986. Binnig, Calvin Quate and Christoph Gerber invented the first atomic force microscope in 1986. The first commercially available atomic force microscope was introduced in 1989. IBM researcher Don Eigler was the first to manipulate atoms using a scanning tunneling microscope in 1989. He used 35 Xenon atoms to spell out the IBM logo. He shared the 2010 Kavli Prize in Nanoscience for this work. Initial commercial applications The early 2000s saw the beginnings of the use of nanotechnology in commercial products, although most applications are limited to the bulk use of passive nanomaterials. Examples include titanium dioxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles in sunscreen, cosmetics and some food products; silver nanoparticles in food packaging, clothing, disinfectants and household appliances such as Silver Nano; carbon nanotubes for stain-resistant textiles, and cerium oxide as a fuel catalyst As of March 10, 2011, the Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies estimated that over 1300 manufacturer-identified nanotech products are publicly available, with new ones hitting the market at a pace of 3-4 per week. Potential Uses The joint Center for Bioethics in Canada ranked potential uses of nanosciences and nanotechnologies with respect to development. The top ten uses follow (BBC News, 2005). Energy production, conservation and storage Enhancement of agricultural productivity Treatment and remediation of water Screening and diagnosing diseases Systems for drug delivery Processing and storing food Controlling air pollution Construction Monitoring health Detecting and controlling pests  Lesson The Aspects of Gene Therapy 4 Objectives: By the end of the lessons, you must be able to: 1. list the advantages and disadvantages of genetic therapy; 2. evaluate whether genetic therapy is ethical or not. Introduction Because chromosomes and genes provide instructions for our bodies, any changes to these structures have the potential to cause genetic disease and negatively impact health. We will discuss the types of genetic diseases, how these diseases are inherited, and the potential health outcomes. HEREDITY is the passing on of traits from parents to their offspring, either through asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction, the offspring cells or organisms acquire the genetic information of their parents, through heredity, variations between individuals can accumulate and cause species to evoke by natural selection. The study of heredity is biology of genetics. The Role of Genes in Heredity The heredity information is contained or within the genes, located in the chromosomes of each cell. An inherited trait can be determined by one or by many genes and a single gene can influence more than one trait. A human cell contains many thousands of different genes in the nucleus. Heredity factors known as genes are thought to exist as discrete portions (known as loci) of chromosomes. The term "discrete" refers to the concept that genes are always located at the same point or (locus) on a chromosome. It is believed that pairs of homologous chromosomes contain linear, matching arrangements of genes exerting parallel control over the same traits. Pairs of genes that exercise such parallel control over the same traits are known as alleles, which are of two kinds: dominant and recessive. Genetic characteristics can be extremely complex and may require the actions of several separate genes to be expressed in the adult organism. An example of traits that require more than a single pair of genes to be expressed are human height and human color. Other traits may be controlled by a single pair of genes. Some of these traits may have extreme phenotypes, such as albinism (lack of skin pigment) in humans. DNA Structure DNA is a polymer made up of a repeating chemical unit known as the NUCLEOTIDE. Thousands of the units are known to comprise a single- DNA molecule, making it one of the largest of all organic compounds. DNA exists in hundreds of thousands, if not millions, of different forms, depending on the precise arrangement of nucleotides in the molecule. Its variability is the key to genetic variation in living things. DNA nucleotides themselves are quite complex, being composed of three separate subunits: Phosphate group - a chemical group made up of phosphorous and oxygen Deoxyribose - a five-carbon sugar made up of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen Nitrogenous base - a chemical unit composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Bases found in DNA are adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G) DNA Code The chemical and structural properties of DNA are the bases for how the genetic information that underlies heredity is both encoded in genes (as a string of molecular bases) and replicated by means of template. As we recall the DNA is a complex organic molecule composed of thousands of repeating nucleotide molecules and that each free nucleotide carries with it one of our nitrogenous bases. The particular sequence of nitrogenous bases adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine (A, T, C and G) comprise a strand of DNA and providing the type of chemical code that is understood by the chemical mechanisms of the cell. The DNA code is used by these mechanisms to manufacture specific enzymes and other proteins through the process of protein synthesis. Gene Mutations Genes are segments of DNA molecules. Any alteration of the DNA sequence is a mutation. Usually, an individual cell's altered gene will be passed on to every cell that develops from it. Gene mutations may be defined as being any changes in the nitrogenous base sequence of a molecule DNA. When the base sequence of DNA is altered, the amino acid sequence of the polypeptide for which it codes will likewise be altered. Such an alteration may affect the operation of the resulting enzyme, preventing it from properly catalyzing its reaction and thus preventing a trait from being expressed by the cell. The majority of gene mutations are harmful because they result in the cell being impaired from performing some specific task. In rare cases, a mutation may result in a lethal gene that kills the cell either by producing a substance toxic to the cell or by failing to produce a protein of vital importance to the cell. Gene mutations are passed to every cell that arises from the mutated. If the mutation occurs in somatic (body) tissues, its defect is limited to the tissues immediately surrounding the mutated cell. If the mutation occurs in a primary sex cell, it passed on to the offspring that result from fertilization of or by gametes produced from the primary sex cell. A mutation can enter the gene pool of a population and be passed on to succeeding generations. This is known to be a cause of variation in a species. Certain mutations can cause genetic disorders. Common genetic disorders are: down syndrome sickle cell disease  phenyl ketoneeria (PKU) hemophilia Meaning and Nature of Gene Therapy Gene therapy is an experimental technique that uses genes to treat or prevent disease. In the future, this technique may allow doctors to treat a disorder by inserting a gene into a patient's cells instead of using drugs or surgery. Researchers are testing several approaches to gene therapy including: Replacing a mutated gene that causes disease with a healthy copy of the gene. Inactivating, or "knocking out," a mutated gene that is functioning improperly. Introducing a new gene into the body to help fight a disease. Although gene therapy is a promising treatment option for a number of diseases (including inherited disorders, some types of cancer, and certain viral infections), the technique remains risky and is still under study to make sure that it will be safe and effective. Gene therapy is currently being tested only for diseases that have no other cures. Gene Therapy Works in Many Ways Gene therapy is designed to introduce genetic material into cells to compensate for abnormal genes or to make a beneficial protein. If a mutated gene causes a necessary protein to be faulty or missing, gene therapy may be able to introduce a normal copy of the gene to restore the function of the protein. A gene that is inserted directly into a cell usually does not function. Instead, a carrier called a vector is genetically engineered to deliver the gene. Certain viruses are often used as vectors because they can deliver the new gene by infecting the cell. The viruses are modified so they can't cause disease when used in people. Some types of virus, such as retroviruses, integrate their genetic material (including the new gene) into a chromosome in the human cell. Other viruses, such as adenoviruses, introduce their DNA into the nucleus of the cell, but the DNA is not integrated into a chromosome. The vector can be injected or given intravenously (by IV) directly into a specific tissue in the body, where it is taken up by individual cells. Alternately, a sample of the patient's cells can be removed and exposed to the vector in a laboratory setting. The cells containing the vector are then returned to the patient. If the treatment is successful, the new gene delivered by the vector will make a functioning protein. Researchers must overcome many technical challenges before gene therapy will be a practical approach to treating disease. For example, scientists must find better ways to deliver genes and target them to particular cells. They must also ensure that new genes are precisely controlled by the body. Various Forms of Gene Therapy As previously mentioned, gene therapy is used to treat diseases by connecting defective genes or modifying how genes must be expressed. The technique used involve administering a specific DNA or RNA sequence. Researchers hope that in the future, gene therapy will enable patients to be treated by inserting genes into their genes rather than administering drugs or subjecting them to surgery. This therapy offers a promising new approach to treating a range of diseases including various forms of cancer, inherited disease and certain viral infections. However, further studies are still required to ensure the safety and effectiveness of these techniques. Currently, the therapy is only used to treat diseases where other therapies are already known to be ineffective. There are two basic types of gene therapy: germline therapy and somatic gene therapy. These are described in more detail below. 1. Germline Gene Therapy This therapy involves the modification of the genes inside germ cells (sperm or ova). During reproduction, these gamete cells fuse to form a zygote, which would divide and pass on the modified gene into all other cells of the body during the development of offspring. In this way, the therapy alters the genome of future generations to come. Although theoretically this could counteract hereditary disease, jurisdictions in various countries such as Switzerland, Australia and Germany prohibit the use of germline therapy due to fears over unknown risks and long-term effects in future generations. In addition, the therapy is very costly. 2. Somatic Gene Therapy Unlike germline therapy, somatic gene therapy only involves the insertion of therapeutic DNA into body cells and not the germ cells or gametes. This means any effects of the therapy are confined to the individual being treated and are not inherited by future offspring. The field of somatic gene therapy is surrounded by fewer ethical issues compared with germline gene therapy, although the therapeutic approach is also still in the early stages of design and prone to obstacles. The first hurdle is successful incorporation into the genome; integrating the modified gene into the wrong part of the DNA could induce rather than prevent disease. Secondly, the desired gene needs to be expressed. Thirdly, the gene expression needs regulating to prevent over expression triggering any disease. How Genes are Inserted into Cancer Cells One of the most challenging aspects of gene therapy is inserting genes into cancer cells and experts are striving to find new and improved techniques for achieving this: One of the main ways this is carried out is through the use of a vector, which carries a gene into a cancer cell. Usually, the vector is a virus because viruses are built to target and enter cells so they can deliver their genetic material once inside them. Scientists have found ways to alter these viruses so that they only deliver genes to cancer cells rather than healthy cells. Other vectors are also being tested such as inactivated bacteria. Techniques in Cancer Treatment There are some techniques that may be used to treat cancer. These are: 1. Harnessing the immune response. Some forms of gene therapy are designed to strengthen the body's existing ability to target and kill cancer cells. The role of certain cells of the immune system is to recognize and kill these cells. Adding certain genes to a patient's immune cells can improve their ability to find or kill certain forms of cancer. These techniques are currently being tested in a few trials across the UK. 2. Gene therapy to enhance cancer treatment. Some techniques insert genes into cancer cells that can make the cancer cells more vulnerable to radiotherapy or chemotherapy, therefore improving the effectiveness of these treatments. 3. Blocking the protection of cancer cells. Certain processes cancer cells use to survive can be blocked using gene therapy. For example, one process called apoptosis refers to the programmed cell death a cell undergoes if it contains DNA that is damaged and beyond repair. In cancer cells, apoptosis is stopped and the cells divide to form new cells that also contain the damage DNA. Some gene therapy techniques are designed to prevent this inhibition of apoptosis to ensure that the cancer cells do in fact die rather than survive. 4. Pro-drug gene therapy Certain gene therapy techniques insert genes into cancer cells that allow conversion of an inactive drug called a pro-drug into the active form. The converting gene is given in the form of a tablet or capsule and the pro-drug is then administered. The pro-drug does not harm normal cells and only reaches cancer cells, where it is activated by the gene to become destructive. Potential Benefits and Detriments of Gene Therapy to Global Health As previously stated, gene therapy is an experimental method used to treat genetic illness by inserting healthy genes into cells, taking out the bad ones, or replacing a mutated gene. The idea of gene therapy rests on changing the internal structure of the DNA to prevent or cure illness such as Alzheimer's and cancer instead of relying on drugs and outside treatment. Since its original conception in 1972, there were proponents and opponents of this method as both the benefits and potential risks of this process were brought to the table. As with any new procedure of issue, there are both benefits and potential risks that could arise with gene therapy. Gene therapy's appeal comes when considering disease such as Parkinson's and cancer could potentially be fixed by inserting a healthy gene in place of the bad gene. It could be a good option for disease that have no established cure. The benefits that gene therapy could bring to the sick or dying are attractive, especially in the face of a life-threatening or incurable disease. However, there are also many ethical concerns that come with gene therapy. As with any experiment that alters the genes, there are people who are concerned by scientists taking the role of God. Furthermore, since gene therapy is so expensive, it is only available to the elite. Do you know of some well-to-do persons (senators, congressmen, business tycoons) who has undergone gene therapy?  Application: a) Instruction: What are the advantages and disadvantages of genetic therapy? Write at least three advantages and disadvantages of genetic therapy. Write your answers in bullet form. Advantages Disadvantages b) Do you AGREE or DISAGREE with this statement: “Genetic therapy is ethical”? Explain your answer as direct to the point as possible.