STS Finals PDF

STS STS FINALS Comparing the lives of the people before anc now will make anyone realize the changes that happened in society not just in terms of culture, language, or rights but more importantly, changes in people's way of life due to the existence of science and technology. The term "generation...

STS STS FINALS Comparing the lives of the people before anc now will make anyone realize the changes that happened in society not just in terms of culture, language, or rights but more importantly, changes in people's way of life due to the existence of science and technology. The term "generation gap" is attributed mainly to the changes brought about by technology. Although the original idea is for technology to help everyone, it cannot be denied that until today, not everyone is comfortable in using the different kinds of technologies. Mostly those who belong to the older generation think that these technologies are too complicated to operate. They have been used to the simple Lving in the past and these available technological devices, though very appealing, are a difficult puzzle to them. Proud to show off their hunt and how good of a hunter they were? Were they concerned with social standing and stratification? How about the meaning of life? Were they also curious on finding explanations to certain phenomena? At least for the last question, it seems that they have found their answer in the person of religion. Excavations on the latter half of the Stone Age include several figures thought to be ceremonial, meaning, that perhaps people of the time had also painstakingly wrought and hewed said figures in honor of some deity. This notion, as it was then and as it is now, is often people's resort to make sense of events happening outside their control. The initial roster of primitive gods includes objects they encounter through their day-to-day lives, so it is not surprising that different tribes may have different gods. Those who might have lived alongside majestic creatures, such as elephants and mammoths, might have been awed by their size and worshiped them as the owner of the land, asking for blessings in their hunting ground. On the contrary, they might have hunted the mammoths for their woolly coat and meat, taking down the animal for the entire community to eat. In windy places near mountains, they might have had a mountain god to explain wind currents and ask for provisions. On the other hand, those who were near coastal areas or bodies of water might have had water gods they referred to when asking for a good catch.However, it might be also the case that people of prior civilizations shared several generic gods, such as the sun.Nevertheless, it can be positively inferred that like the people of today, our ancestors also found the need to explain things in a way that makes sense to them. They quickly realized that there are events outside of their control and attempted to justify things as being a work of a supernatural being. Throughout the course of history, religion remains to be the strongest contender to science arguabiy due to its being the most easily grasped. Admittedly, once people stop connecting the dots between cause and effect, they turn to something that could possibly explain their inadequacies in making sense of the world. The people of yesterday appeared to have acknowledged early on that they could only do and understand as much, that perhaps other powers at play also existed alongside them. This notion effectively humbled and perhaps grounded them, with their constant befuddlement serving as an early reminder that they were way behind several larger, more powerful forces in nature in terms of order of things. The Human Condition in the Common Era For a long time, humans were content with their relationship with nature. Earliest case of man-made extinction occurred over 12,000 years ago, possibly brought upon by hunting and territorial disputes. The Holocene extinction, also called the sixth extinction or more aptly Anthropocene extinction, occurred from as early as between 100,000 to 200,000 years up to the present. It pertains to the ongoing extinction of several species-both flora and fauna-due to human activity. Driven by their primal need to survive and gaining the upper hand in terms of development and adaptability, humans were quick to find ways to drive off other megafaunas threatening a prospective hunting spot and eventually, settling grounds. Growing population also necessitated finding additional resources, leading to overhunting and overfishing common prey, some of which were endemic to the area. Hunting, coupled with a changing terrain that the humans began cultivating when agriculture emerged some 9,000 years ago, caused several species to lose conpetition in territor; and food resources. Formation of communities caused humans to expand more in territory and more people to feed; large, separate communities hailing from the same ancestors and residing in the same large community paved way for civilizations. Even as a community, the people realized that though they were at most self-sufficient, they were in constant need of resources. Albeit waging wars with other tribes seemed to be the early solution, they were able to find out some 5,000 years ago that engaging in a peaceful negotiation was also a possible and less bloody method. They realized that they could get hold of things not present in their towns by offering something of same value present in theirs. It is in this process that trade emerged, leading to cross-town and eventually cross-cultural interaction as more products were exchanged and the initial needs extended to wants. People then had a new objective-gather as much products as possible. They have turned to wealth as one of their goals as humans and ultimately as civilizations, for they perceived that those who have many, live comfortably and thus are ge 'erally happier than those who do not have sufficient wealth. Thus, they began to hunt, farm, and produce things with prospect of profit. A nuclear community which is initially self-sufficient has to accommodate their growing population with depleting resources, leading them to be reliant to other communities' produce which keeps them surviving. In return, these communities have to make use of their current resources twice as much to provide for other communities' needs. Products of every kind were exchanged, ranging from necessary ones such as crops, cattle, poultry, others of kind, and clothing materials, up to metals, accessories, weapons, spices, literature, and entertainment. They were able to find and create niches for interests. When they could not sell products, they used their skills and got compensated for it-bringing forth a specialized group of artisans. Humanity became more complex. The primary goal was not merely to survive, but to live the good life. Technology has been instrumental in all of these because in searching for the good life, people were able to come up with creations that would make life easier, more comfortable, and more enriching. Although the good life envisioned before might be pale in comparison to the multifariousness of today, it offered us the initial intricacies of how today came to be. Such intricacies are also evident in the machines created and causes endeavored by the people of long ago. They perceive death as, at the very least, unpleasant and concocted potions to ward evil off from their kinsmen, often appealing to their gods for blessings. Medicine was thus born, although it would take a considerably long time before it part ways with potion. They became fixated with gold and were adamant in procuring more, trying to use incantations with mixtures of substances to turn lead into one. This ultimately paved way for the emergence of chemistry in its primitive form, not quite distinct from alchemy. Due to differing races, belief, or abundance of resources and/or territory, wars were always being waged, leading communities to allocate resources to the militia. Initially, the carly leaders were those who portrayed exceptional strength among their group-this condition carried on for generations. Physical strength was valued at most, although there appeared to be as many intellectually gifted figures just the same. These innovators were primarily the ones behind discoveries and triumphs of these civilizations. Position-wise, the humans of today are much better off compared to humans several centuries ago. Advancements in medicine, technology, health, and education ushered in humanity's best yet, and show no sign of stopping. Below are some of the notable comparisons then and now: 1. Mortality Rate. Due to technology, lesser women and children die during birth, assuring robust population and strong workforce. Medical care for premature infants allows them to survive and develop normally, while proper maternal care ensures that mothers can fully recover and remain empowered. 2. Average Lifespan. Aside from the reason that people engage less in combat and are less likely to die in treatable diseases now as opposed to then, science is able to prolong lives by enhancing living status and discovering different remedies to most diseascs. Distribution of medicines is also made easier and faster. 3. Literacy Rate. Access to education provided to more individuals generally creates a more informed public that could determine a more just society. 4. Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Although not an indicator of an average person's lifestyle in a certain country, it is often used to determine the value of the country's goods and services produced within the territory given a certain time period. Higher country income is brought upon by high productivity, often an indicator of presence of technology. The Essence of Technology Humanity has indeed come a long way from our primitive ways, and as a general rule, it is said that we are more "developed" than we were before. Above data are few indicators of the route that we have come to take as species, and there are no signs of stopping. Modern humans are reliant on technology in their search for the good life. We see ways and means from nature to utilize and achieve growth—a goal that we believe would bring forth betterment. In retrospect, this view of technology proves to be goal-oriented. It assumes that it is instrumental in achieving a go.I in mind, that it is a purposeful, deliberate craft humans steer in order to reach some greater good. In the advent of postmodernism, however, the deterministic view appended to technology crumbled as people began to question if anything is deterministic at all. Apart from its purpose, what is technology? Was the history of technology brought purposeful choices for man in his search for the ultimate good? Some tried to redefine technology away from its purpose. One philosopher by the name of Martin Heidegger argued that its essence, or purpose, and being are different from each other. He was able to expound on this point upon identifying that technology can either be perceived as first, a means to achieve man's end and second, that which constitutes human activity. The secord perspective paints technology in such a way that each period reveals a particular character regarding man's being. A characteristic design, or flaw, unfolds based on the repercussions brought upon by immersing ourselves with a piece of new technology. In effect, through technology, a myriad of new questions begins to mount. Rather than thinking that humans have a clear idea of what to expect in a good life, it can be stated that technology allows humans to confront the unknown and see how they would react. This is not a good thing altogether though, for technological revelation is but one of the many ways to perceive the world. However, as long as humans are invested in growth and development, we cannot distance ourselves from this perspective. In the name of growth, we view the world as a field of resources, went on attributing monetary value on seemingly priceless entities. We begin to categorize nature as renewable and nonrenewable instead of seeing it as it is. Humans are reduced into the amount of productivity they are able to render during thei- lifetime, and our current mindset is geared toward which would utilize our own skills. A good life is one which is practical in essence; a life which makes use of our labor and which we get compensated fairly upon. It is no wonder that the sciences are one of the most sought after courses, for the opportunities are plenty resources are bountiful. Since humans appear not to really know what they are seeking for, the search continues. It is a looming fear, however, that the path we are treading will not take us to the right direction, leading us in endless circles instead in our pursuit of the good life. This is the danger presented by too much reliance on technology. Humans lose track of things that matter, reducing their surroundings to their economic value. As this presents strong backing by the sciences whose reverence is also brought upon by our deluded enchantment with technology, it will prove to be a herculean task to distance ourselves from this perspective and consider alternatives. After all, it was science and technology that gave us explanations, which worked for us and benefited us. Rejecting a working, tried-and-tested process seems foolish, more so, knowing that there are no options of equal value. It will be absurd to venture the dark and the unknown, but it should be done in order for us to retrace our steps to be able to achieve the Good. Backtracking the Human Condition Technology's initial promises proved to be true, regardless of its ramifications. All in all the human condition improved, only if by improving we measure the level of comfort, various scientific breakthroughs, and improved lifestyles of those who had the luxury to afford to do so. Different machineries aid in prolonging lives-assisting those with disabilities, honing efficiency in industrial workplaces, and even exploring tne universe for places we can thrive once all the Earth's resources are depleted. As to the initial aims, it appears that things really did not much differ. Some places in the world are still battling for their daily survival- diseases, tribe wars, lack of habitable territories, and competitions on resources are several factors contributing to such. People still wage wars on the basis of races, belief, and abundance of resources and/or territory; except that now, they are able to inflict such in a global scale. A lot of people still subscribe to religion in explaining things that they do not know. For those who have ceased to do so, they have turned their worships to reverence of science. Whether science or religion, these people are still bent on trying to make sense of the events happening in the world on the basis of either of these two paradigms. They are still trying to discover and rediscover things that would give meaning to their lives- whether it be honor, strength, or merit. People are still trying to make sense of their existence in the world, and technology does little to aid them in their pursuit of life's meaning. It seems that the human condition, although more sophisticated, is nothing but a rehashed version of its former self. Nothing much has changed since then, and it appears that nothing will change in the times to come if we fail to shift our view elsewhere. While it is true that technology offered us one compelling notion of the truth and the good, we should be staunch in our resolve if we want to know the real one. For starters, we might begin with considering other concepts, which corresponds to the Good, such as Aristotle's conception of human flourishing. His notion entertains the idea of holistic enrichment of a person situated in his society. A notable distinction on Aristotle's idea is his subscriptión on evaluative concepts called virtues and their role in achieving the good life. Technological advancements are seemingly occurring in a rapid pace thai our morality cannot quite keep up; no such consideration was given in this approach in achieving the good life. This will further be discussed in the following chapters. Science and technology has been part of human activity since the beginaing of our species. It has aided us in survival and helped us outsmart our adversaries, provided us comfortable living, allowed us to explore the world, and assisted us in discovering more about ourselves and the truth. However, it also leads us to a paradox in which we are only able to see the world in the lenses of technological innovations. In our pursuit of growth; we had conveniently forgotten that technology only presents one approach in viewing the world. This forgetfulness leads us to evaluate objects as consumable or not-transcending to other human beings, determining their capacity to be productive. Our valuation of things became one-aimensional, geared toward production of goods for more consumption, which we believe would lead us to the good life. This is only one conception of technology, as Heidegger also proposed that technology is what humans do. Advancements in the field expose us to previously unknown predicaments, effectively helping us to reveal our own natures and enforcing one perspective in finding the truth. Now that it is acknowledged, we can try and divert our search to other approaches. THE GOOD LIFE In Ancient Greece, long before the word "science" has been coined. the need to urderstand the world and reality was bound with the need to understand the self and the good life. For Plato, the task of understanding the things in the world runs parallel with the jot of truly getting into what will make the soul flourish, In an attempt to understand reality and the external world, man must seek to understand himself, too. It was Aristotle who gave a definitive distinction between the theoretical and practical sciences. Among the theoretical disciplines, Aristotle included logic, biology, physics, and metaphysics, among others. Among the practical ones, Aristotle counted ethics and politics. Whereas "truth" is the aim of the theoretical sciences, the "good" is the end goal of the practical ones. Every attempt to know is connected in some way in an attempt to find the "good" or as said in the previous lesson, the attainment of human flourishing. Rightly so, one must find the truth about what the good is before one can even try to locate that which is good. In the previous lesson, we have seen how a misplaced or an erroneous idea of human flourishing can turn tables for all of us, make the sciences work against us rather than for us, and draw a chasm between the search for truth and for the good. In this lesson, we endeavor to go back a little and answer these questions: What does it really mean to live a good life? What qualifies as a good existence? Granting this understanding, we are assumed to be in a better position to reconcile our deepest existential needs as human beings and science as tool to maneuver around the world. Aristotle and How We All Aspire for a Good Life It is interesting to note that the first philosopher who approached the problem of reality from a "scientific" lens as we know now, is also the first thinker who dabbled into the complex problematization of the end goal of life: happiness. This man is none other than Aristotle. Compared to his teacher and predecessor, Plato, Aristotle embarked on a different approach in figuring out reality. In contrast to Plato who thought that things in this world are not real and are only copies of the real in the world of forms, Aristotle puts everything back to the ground in claiming that this world is all there is to it and that this world is the only reality we can all access. For Plato, change is so perplexing that it can only make sense if there are two realities: the world of forms and the world of matter. Consider the human person. When you try to see yourself in front of the mirror, you normally say and think that you ale looking at yourself-that is, you are the person who slept last night and you are the same person looking at yourself now, despite the occasional changes like a new pimple that grows on your nose. The same is true for a seed that you threw out of the garden last month. When you peek into the same patch of land where the seed ingrained itself into, you may be surprised to see a little plant showing itself to you and to the sun. Plato recognized change as a process and as a phenomenon that happens in the world, that in fact, it is constant. However, Plato also claims that despite the reality of change, things remain and they retain their ultimate "whatness"; that you remain to be you despite the pimple that now sits atop your nose. Plato was convinced that reality is full of these seemingly contrasting manifestations of change and permanence. For Plato, this can only be. explained by postulating two aspects of reality, two worlds if you wish: the world of forms and the world of matter. In the world of matter, things are changing and impermanent. In the world of forms, the entities are only copies of the ideal and the models, and the forms are the only real entities. Things are red in this world because they participate in what it means to be red in the world of forms. Aristotle, for his part, disagreed with his teacher's position and forwarded the idea that there is no reality over and above what the senses can perceive. As such, it is only by observation of the external world that-one can truly understand what reality is all about. Change is a process that is inherent in things. We, along with all other entities in the world, start as potentialities and move toward actualities. The movement, of course, entails change. Consider a seed that eventually germinates and grows into a plant. The seed that turned to become the plant underwent change-from the potential plant that is the seed to its full actuality, the plant. Aristotle extends this analysis from the external world into the province of the human person and declares that even human beings are potentialities who aspire for their actuality. Every human being moves according to some end. Every action that emanates from a human person is a function of the purpose (telos) that the person has. When a boy asks for a burger from a Filipino burger joint, the action that he takes is motivated primarily by the purpose that he has, inferably to get full or to taste the burger that he only sees on TV. When a girl tries to finish her degree in the university, despite the initial failures she may have had, she definitely is being propelled by a higner purpose than to just graduate. She wants something more, maybe to have a license and land a promising job in the future. Every human person, according to Aristotle, aspires for an end. This end, we have learned from the previous chapters, is happiness or human flourishing. No individual-young or old, fat or skinny, male or female—resists happiness. We all want to be happy. Aristotle claims that happiness is the be all and end all of everything that we do. We may not realize it but the end goal of everything that we do is happiness. If you ask one person why he is doing what he is doing, he may not readily say that it is happiness that motivates him. Hard-pressed to explain why he is motivated by what motivates him will reveal that happiness is the grand, motivating force in everything that he does. When Aristotle claims that we want to be happy, he does not necessarily mean the everyday happiness that we obtain when we win a competition or we eat our favorite dish in a restaurant. What Aristotle actually means is human flourishing, a kind of contentment in knowing that one is getting the best out of life. A kind of feeling that one has maxed out his potentials in the world, that he has attained the crux of his humanity. Happiness as the Goal of a Good Life In the eighteenth century, John Stuart Mill declared the Greatest Happiness Principle by saying that an action is right as far as it maximizes the attainment of happiness for the greatest number of people. At a time when people were skeptical about claims on the metaphysical, people could not make sense of the human flourishing that Aristotle talked about in the days of old. Mill said that individual happiness of each individual should be prioritized and collectively dictates the kind of action that should be endorsed. Consider the pronouncements against mining. When an acion benefits the greatest number of people, said action is deemed ethica!. Does mining benefit rather than hurt the majcrity? Does it offer more benefits rather than disadvantages? Does mining result in more people getting happy rather than sad? If the answers to the said questions are in the affirmative, then the said action, mining, is deemed ethical. The ethical is, of course, meant to lead us to the good and happy life. Through the ages, as has been expounded in the previous chapters, man has constantly struggled with the external world in order to reach human flourishing. History has given birth to different schools of thought, all of which aim for the good and happy life. Materialism The first materialists were the atomists in Ancient Greece. Democritus and Leucippus led a school whose primary belief is that the world is made up of and is controlled by the tiny indivisible units in the world called atomos or seeds. For Democritus and his disciples, the world, including human beings, is made up of matter. There is no need to posit immaterial entities as sources of purpose. Atomos simply comes together randomly to form the things in the world. As such, only material entities matter. In terms of human flourishing, matter is what makes us attain happiness. We see this at work with most people who are clinging on to material wealth as the primary source of the meaning of their existence. Hedonism The hedonists, for their part, see the end goal of life in acquiring pleasure. Pleasure has always been the priority of hedonists. For them, life is about obtaining and indulging in pleasure because life is limited. The mantra of this school of thought is the famous, "Eat, drink, and be merry for tomorrow we die." Led by Epicurus, this school of thought also does not buy any notion of afterlife just like the materialists.. Stoicism Another school of thought led by Epicurus, the stoics espurised the idea that to generate happiness, one must learn to distance oneself and be apathetic. The original term, apathia, precisely means to be indifferent. For the stoics, happiness can only be attained by a careful practice of apathy. We should, in this worldview, adopt the fact that some things are not within our control. The sooner we realize this, the happier we can become. Theism Most people find the meaning of their lives using God as a fulcrum of their existence. The Philippines, as a predominantly Catholic country, is witness to how people base their life goals on beliefs that hinged on some form of supernatural reality called heaver. The ultimate basis of happiness for theists is the communion with God. The world where we are in is only just a temporary reality where we have to maneuver around while waiting for the ultimate return to the hands of God. Humanism Humanism as another school of thought espouses the freedom of man to carve his own destiny and to legislate his own laws, free from the shackles of a God that monitors and controls. For humanists, man is literally the captain of his own ship. Inspired oy the enlightenment in seventeenth century, humanists see themselves not merely as stewards of the creation but as individuals who are in control of themselves and the world. outside them. This is the spirit of most scientists who thought that the world is a place and space for freely unearthing the world in seeking for ways on how to improve the lives of its inhabitants. As a result of the motivation of the humanist current, scientists eventually turned to technology in order to ease the difliculty of life as illustrated in the previous iessons. Scientists of today meanwhile are ready to confront more sophisticated attempts at altering the world for the benefit of humanity. Some people now are willing to tamper with time and space in the name of technology. Social media, as an example, has been so far a very effective way of employing technology in purging time and space. Not very long ago, communication between two people from two continents in the planet will involve months of waiting for a mail to arrive. Seeing each other real time while talking was virtually impossib!-. Now, communication between two people wherever they are, is not just possible but easy. The Internet and smart phones made realtime communication possible not just between two people, but even with multiple people simultaneously. Technology allowed us to tinker with our sexuality. Biologically male individuals can now undergo medical operation if they so wish for sexual reassignment. Breast implants are now available and can be done with relative convenience if anyone wishes to have one. Hormones may also be injected in order to alter the sexual chemicals in the body. Whether or not we agree with these technological advancements, these are all undertaken in the hopes of attaining the good life. The balance, however, between the good life, ethics, and technology has to be attained. SUMMARY Man is constantly in pursuit of the good life. Every person has his perspective when it comes to what comprises the good life. Throughout history, man has worked hard in pointing out what amounts to a good, happy life. Some people like the classical theorists thought that happiness has to do with the insides of the human person. The soul, as the seat of our humanity, has been the focus of attention of this end goal. The soul has to attain a certain balance in order to have a good life, a life of flourishing. It was only until the seventeenth century that happiness became a centerpiece in the lives of people, even becoming a full-blown ethical foundation in John Stuart Mill's utilitarianism. At present, we see multitudes of schools of thought that all promise their own key to finding happiness. Science and technology has been, for the most part, at the forefront of man's attempts at finding this happiness. The only question at the end of the day is whether science is taking the right path toward attaining what it really means to live a good life: THE INFORMATION AGE Highly modernized, automated, data-driven, and technologically advanced-these best describe our society nowadays, as evidenced by how information couid be transferred or shared quickly. The different areas of society have been influenced tremendously such as communication, economics, industry, health, and the environment. Despite our gains due to the growing development of information technology, the rapid upgrade of information also has disadvantages. This lesson will discuss the history and impact of technological advancements to society. Life is accompanied by endless transmission of information that takes place within and outside the human body. According to Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary, information is "knowledge communicated or obtained concerning a specific fact or circumstance." Hence, information is a very important tool for survival. The Information Age is defined as a "period starting in the last quarter of the 20th century when information became effortlessly accessible through publications and through the management of information by computers and computer networks" (Vocabulary.com, n.d.). The means of conveying symbolic information (e.g., writing, math, other codes) among humans has evolved with increasing speed. The Information Age is also called the Digital Age and the New Media Age because it was associated with the development of computers. According to James R. Messenger who proposed the Theory of Information Age in 1982, "the Information Age is a true new age based upon the interconnection of computers via telecommunications, with these information systems operating on both a real- time and as-needed basis. Furthermore, the primary factors driving this new age forward are convenience and user-friendliness which, in turn, will create user dependence." As man evolved, information and its dissemination has also evolved in many ways. Eventually, we no longer kept them to ourselves; instead, we share them and manage them in different means. Information got ahead of us. It started to grow at a rate we were unprepared to handle. Because of the abundance of information, it was difficult to collect and manage them starting in the 1960s and 1970s. During the 1980s, real angst set in. Richard Wurman called it "Information Anxiety." In the 1990s, information became the currency in the business world. Information was the preferred medium of exchange and the information managers served as information officers. In the present generation, there is no doubt that information has turned out to be a commodity, an overdeveloped product, mass-produced, and unspecialized. Soon, we become overloaded with it. 1. Desktop Computer - It is described as a PC that is not designed for portability. The assumption with a desktop is that it will be set up in a permanent spot. A workstation is simply a desktop computer that has a more powerful processor, additional memory, and enhanced capabilities for performing special group of tasks, such as 3D graphics or game development. Most desktops offer more storage, power, and versatility than their portable versions (UShistory.org, 2017). 2. Laptops - These are portable computers that integrate the essentials of a desktop computer in a battery-powered package, which are somewhat larger than a typical hardcover book. They are commonly called notebooks. 3. Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) - These are tightly integrated computers that usually have no keyboards but rely on a touch screen for user input. PDAs are typically smaller than a paperback, lightweight, and battery-powered (UShistory.org, 2017). 4. Server - It refers to a computer that has been improved to provide network services to other computers. Servers usually boast powerful processors, tons of memory, and large hard drives (UShistory.org, 2017). 5. Mainframes - These are huge computer systems that can fill an entire room. They are used especially by large firms to describe thie large, expensive machines that process millions of transactions every day. The term "mainframe" has been replaced by cnterprise server. Although some supercomputers are single computer systems, most comprise multiple, high- performance, parallel computers working as a single system (UShistory.org, 2017). 6. Wearable Computers - They involve materials that are usually integrated into cell phones, watches, and other small objects or places. They perform common computer applications such as databases, email, multimedia, and schedulers (UShistory.org, 2017). The World Wide Web (Internet) Several historians trace the origin of the Internet to Claude E. Shannon, an American Mathematician who was considered as the "Father of Information Theory." He worked at Bell Laboratories and at age 32, he published a paper proposing that information can be quantitatively encoded as a sequence of ones and zeroes. The Internet is a worldwide system of interconnected networks that facilitate data transmission among innumerable computers. It was developed during the 1970s by the Department of Defense. In case of an attack, military advisers suggested the advantage of being able to operate on one computer from another terminal. In the early days, the Internet was used mainly by scientists to communicate with other scientists. The Internet remained under government control until 1984 (Rouse, 2014). One early problem faced by Internet users was speed. Phone lines could only transmit information at a limited rate. The development of fiber-optic cables allowed'for billions of bits of information to be received every minute. Companies like Intel developed faster microprocessors so personal computers could process the incoming signals at a more rapid rate (UShistory.org, 2017). Sergey Brin and Larry Page, directors of a Stanford research project, built a search engine that listed results to reflect page popularity when they determined that the most popular result would frequently be the most usable. After talking with family, friends, and other investors into contributing $1 million, the researchers launched their company in 1998. Google is now the world's most popular search engine, accepting more than 200 million queries daily. Back then, new forms of communication were also introduced. Electronic mail, or email, was a suitable way to send a message to fellow workers, business partners, or friends. Messages could be sent and received at the convenience of the individual. A letter that took several days to arrive could be read in minutes. Internet service providers like / merica Online and CompuServe set up electronic chat rooms. These were open areas of cyberspace where interested parties could join in a conversation with perfect strangers. "Surfing the net" became a pastime in and of itself (UShistory.org, 2017). Consequently, companies whose businesses are built on digitized information have tacome valuable and powerful in a relatively short period of time; the current Information Age has spawned its own breed of wealthy influential brokers, from Microsoft's Bill Gates to Apple's Steve Jobs to Facebook's Mark Zuckerberg. Critics charged that the Internet created a technological divide that increased the gap between the members of the higher class and lower class of society. Those who could not afford a computer or a monthly access fee were denied these possibilities. Many decried the impersonal nature of electronic communication compared to a telephone call or a handwritten letter. On one hand, the unregulated and loose nature of the Internet allowed pornography to be broadcast to millions of homes. Protecting children from these influences or even from meeting violent predators would prove to be difficult. Nowadays, crimes in various forms are rampant because of the use of social media. Cyberbullying is an issue that poses alarm worldwide. Consequently, we need to be aware of the possible harm and damage due to abuse of these advances in the information Age. Applications of Computers in Science and Research One of the significant applications of computers for science and rescarch is evident in the field of bioinformatics. Bioinformatics is the application of information technology to store, organize, and analyze vast amount of biological data which is available in the form of sequences and structures of proteins-the building blocks of organisms and nucleic acids-the information carrier (Madan, n.d.). Early interest in bioinformatics was established because of a need to create databases of biological sequences. The human brain cannot store all the genetic sequences of organisms and this huge amount of data can only be stored, analyzed, and be used efficiently with the use of computers. While the initial databases of protein sequences were maintained at individual laboratories, the development of a consolidated formal database, known as SWISS-PROT protein sequence database, was initiated in 1986. It now has about 70,000 protein sequences from more than 5,000 model organisms, a small fraction of all known organisms. The enormous variety of divergent data resources is now available for study and research by both academic institutions and industries. These are made available as public domain information in the larger interest of research community through the Internet (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov) and CD-ROMs (on request from www.rcsb.org). These databases are constantly updated with additional entries (Madan, n.d.). Computers and software tools are widely used for generating these databases and to identify the function of proteins, model the structure of proteins, determine the coding (useful) regions of nucleic acid sequences, find suitable drug compounds from a large pool, and optimize the drug development process by predicting possible targets. Some of the software tools which are handy in the analysis include: BLAST (used for comparing sequences); Annotator (an interactive genome analysis tool); and GeneFinder (tool to identify coding regions and splice sites) (Madan, n.d.). The sequence information generated by the human genome research, initiated in 1988, has now been stored as a primary information source for future applications in medicine. The available data is so huge that if compiled in books, the data would run into 200 volumes of 1,000 pages each and reading alone (ignoring understanding factor) would require 26 years working around the clock. For a population of about five billion human beings with two individuals differing in three million bases, the genomic sequence difference database would have about 15,000,000 billion entries. The present challenge to handle such huge volume of data is to improve database design, develop software for database access, and manipulation and device data-entry procedures to compensate for the varied computer procedures and systems used in different laboratories. The much-celebrated complete human genome sequence which was formally announced on the 26th of June 2000 involved more than 500 x 1018 (500 million trillion) calculations during the process of assembling the sequences alone. This can be considered as the biggest exercise in the history of computational biology (Madan, n.d.). Moreover, from the pharmaceutical industry's point of view, bioinformatics is the key to rational drug discovery. It reduces the number of trials in the screening of drug compounds and in identifying potential drug targets for a particular disease using high- power computing workstations and software like Insight. This profound application of bioinformatics in genome sequence has led to a new area in pharmacology-Pharmacogenomics, where potential targets for drug development are hypothesized from the genome sequences. Molecular modeling, which requires a lot of calculations, has become faster due to the advances in computer processors and its architecture (Madan, n.d.). In plant biotechnology, bioinformatics is found to be useful in the areas of identifying diseases resistance genes and designing plants with high nutrition value (Madan, n.d.). How to Check the Reliability of Web Sources The Internet contains a vast collection of highly valuable information but it may also contain unreliable, biased information that mislead people. The following guidelines can help us check the reliability of web sources that 'ne gather. It is noteworthy to consider and apply the following guidelines to avoid misinformation. (Lee College Library, n.d.) 1. Who is the author of the article/site? How to find out? Look for an "About" or "More About the Autnor" link at the top, bottom, or sidebar of the webpage. Some pages will have a corporate author rather than a single person as an author. If no information about the author(s) of the page is provided, be suspicious. Does the author provide his or her credentials? What type of expertise does he or she have on the subject he or she is writing about? Does !.e or she indicate what his or her education is? What type of experience does he or she have? Should you trust his or her knowledge of the subject? Try searching on the Internet for information about the author. What kinds of websites are associated with the author's name? Is he or she affiliated with any educational institution? Do commercial sites come up? Do the websites associated with the author give you any clues to particular biases the author might have? 2. Who published the site? How to find out? Look at the domain name of the website that will tell you who is hosting the site. For instance, the Lee College Library website is: http://www.lee.edu/ library. The domain name is "lee.edu." This tells you that the library website is hosted by Lee College. / Search the domain name at http://www.whois.sc/. The site provides information about the owners of registered domain names. What is the organization's main purpose? Check the organization's main website, if it has one. Is it educational? Commercial? Is it a reputable organization? Do not ignore the suffix on the domain name (the three-letter part that comes after the "."). The suffix is usually (but not always) descriptive of what type of entity hosts the website. Keep in mind that it is possible for sites to obtain suffixes that are misleading. Here are some examples: edu = educational.com = commercial mil = military gov = government org = nonprofit 3. What is the main purpose of the site? Why did the author write it and why did the publisher post it? To sell a product? As a personai hobby? As public service? To further scholarship on a topic? To provide general information on a topic? To persuade you of a particular point of view? 4. Who is the intended audience? Scholars or the general public? Which age group is it written for? Is it aimed at people from a particular geographic area? Is it aimed at members of a particular profession or with specific training? 5. What is the quality of information provided on the website? Timeliness: When was the website first published? Is it regularly updated? Check for dates at the bottom of each page on the site. Does the author cite sources? Just as in print sources, web sources that cite their sources are considered more reliable. What type of other sites does the website link to? Are they reputable sites? What types of sites link to the website you are evaluating? Is the website being cited by others? Examples of Useful and Reliable Web Sources 1. AFA e-Newsletter (Alzheimer's Foundation of America newsletter) 2. American Memory - the Library of Congress historical digital collection. 3. Bartleby.com Great Books Online - a collection of free e-books including fictions, nonfictions, references, and verses.  4. Chronicling America - search and view pages from American newspapers from 1880-1922. 5. Cyber Bullying - a free collection of e-books from ebrary plus additional reports and documents to help better understand, prevent and take action against this growing concern. 6. Drug information websites: National Library of Medicine's MedlinePlus Drugs.com PDRhealth 7. Global Gateway: World Culture & Resources (from the Library of Congress) 8. Googie Books 9. Googlescholar.com 10. History site with primary documents: AMDOCS: Documents for the study of American history Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy (Yale Law School) Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Colonial Latin America Teacher Oz's Kingdom of History 11. Illinois Digital Archives - the Illinois State Library working with libraries, museums, and historical societies in Illinois provides this collection of materials related to Illinois history. 12. Internet Archive - a digital library of Internet sites and other cultural artifacts in digital form. 13. Internet Archive for CARLI digitized resources 14. Internet Public Library 15. ipl2 - a merger of Librarians' Internet Index and Internet Public Library. Special interest may include the "Literary Criticisms" page which can be found after clicking on the "Special Collections" link. 16. Librarians' Internet Index 17. Making of America - a digital library of primary sources in American social history. 18. Maps - from the University of Texas at Austin collection. Includes historical and thematic maps. 19. NationMaster - a massive central data source and a handy way to graphically compare nations. It is a vast compilation of data from such sources as the CIA World Factbook, UN, ard OECD. 20. Nursing sites: AHRQ (www.ahrg-gov) National Guidelines Clearinghouse (www.guideline.gov) PubMed (www.nim.nih.gov) 21. Project Gutenberg - the first and largest single collection of free electronic books with currently over 20,000 e-books available. 22. Shmoop - literature, US history, and poetry information written primarily by PhD and masters students from top universities like Stanford, Berkeley, Harvard, and Yale. 23. StateMaster — a unique statistical database which allows you to research and compare a multitude of different data on US states using various primary sources such as the US Census Bureau, the FBI, and the National Center for Educational Statistics. It uses visualization technology like pie charts, maps, graphs, and scatter plots to provide data. 24. Virtual Reference - selected web resources compiled by the Library of Congress. One can also visit the university library and seek help from librarians as they are knowledgeable and the library has a rich collection of online library resources that are very useful for academic and research purposes. SUMMARY Nowadays, information could be shared or transferred quickly. People are becoming more interested in sharing information about themselves. Various aspects of our society are also being influenced by the Information Age especially communication, economics, industry, health, and the environment. The rapid upgrade of information poses both positive and negative impacts to our society. Therefore, we need to carefully check our motives before disseminating information and we also need to verify information before believing them and using and sharing them. We should share information that could help improve our lives and others. BIODIVERSITY AND THE HEALTHY SOCIETY Decrease in biodiversity is eminent worldwide. Vertebrates fell to 60% from the 1970s due to human causes. It is projected that by 2020, wildlife decline will be 67% of the present number. The World Wide Fund for Nature and Zoological Society of London reported an annual decrease in wildlife by 2%. A major cause is human population which has doubled in number since 1960 to 7.4 billion. Humans have industrialized the natural habitat of wildlife as well as marine life. Leaving these creatures with no place to live would eventually cause tneir deaths. Marco Lambertini, the General Director of WWF International, described that the disappearance of wildlife is at an unprecedented rate. Earth might enter the sixth mass extinction event according to experts. Mass extinction is described as the disappearance of species at a rate of 1,000 faster than usual. Moreover, the disappearance of species in a certain environment causes an imbalance in the ecosystem, producing more chaotic changes that harm the entire ecosystem (Inquirer.net, 2016). This is but a pressing statement for people to know more about the importance of our diverse environment, and how human activities can either contribute to its growth or destruction. There is a growing importance of studying how society, environment, and health is interrelated to each other, that if human beings fail to recognize the needs of one of those components, the other remaining components can be affected and compromised. Thus, it is timely to know about the pressing effects of species being extinct and that of our ecosystem being imbalanced. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Biodiversity is defined as the vast variety ef life forms in the entire Earth. It encompasses all kinds of life forms, from the single- celled organisms to the largest multi-celled organisms. Its definition is in the structural and functional perspective and not as individual species. Another definition of biodiversity is "the variability among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystenis and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species, and of ecosystems. Biodiversity is the scurce of the essential goods and ecological services that constitute the source of life for ail and it has direct consumptive value in food, agriculture, medicine, and in industry." (Villaggio Globale, 2009) Understanding biodiversity within the concept of ecosystem needs a thorough study on the relationship of the biotic, the living organisms and the abiotic, nonliving organisms. Interdisciplinary approach is needed to study the ecosystem. Biodiversity plays a major role in this natural dynamics. For example, a large number of golden snails in a certain area of a rice field can help predict a low production of rice harvest, since eggs of the golden snails are considered pest for rice plant. On a positive view, the larger number of different species in a certain area can be a predictor of sustainable life in that area. Sustainability of the ecosystem ensues a better survival rate against any natural disaster. Therefore, we, as human inhabitants of the ecosystem, must preserve and conserve the biodiversity of all creatures. In simpler terms, it is true that people will always depend on biodiversity on the wholeness of our being and in our everyday lives. More so, our health will ultimately depend upon the products and services that we acquire from the ecosystem. Somehow, there are ways and processes in the ecosystem that are not apparent nor appreciated by us, human beings. Think about the need to drink clean and fresh water, the need to eat healthy vegetables and food, or the need of man to transport which makes him rely on fuel. All of these are human needs that are answered and provided by our ecosystem. Thus, if we fail to keep the process of taking care of the ecosystem, it is us who are actually putting our lives at risk. Significant decline in biodiversity has direct human impact when ecosystem in its insufficiency can no longer provide the physical as well as social needs of human beings. Indirectly, changes in the ecosystem affect livelihood, income, and on occasion, may even cause political conflict (WHO, n.d.). Changes in Biodiversity Alteration in any system could bring varied effects. A change in biodiversity could have erratic effects not only in wildlife or marine life but also in human beings. For example, humans inhabiting the forest would disturb the natural order of life. Trees and plants would be affected in the land- clearing operations where the houses would be built. The animals, insects, and all types of life forms in the cleared arez would either be displaced or most likely be killed. The loss of these life forms could affect the entire ecosystem governing that environment. The food chain might be damaged. From this, we can clearly infer that when our ecosystem is not well taken care of, biodiversity encounters changes that may impact human health on such different levels. Threats to Biodiversity There are major threats to biodiversity that were identified by the Unit-d Nations' Environment Programme (WHO, n.d.). Tiese are the following: 1. Habitat loss and destruction. Major contributing factor is the inhabitation of human beings and the use of land for economic gains. 2. Alterations in ecosystem composition. Alterations and sudden changes, either within species groups or within the environment, could begin to change entire ecosystems. Alterations in ecosystems are a critical factor contributing to species and habitat loss. 3. Over-exploitation. Over-hunting, overfishing, or over-collecting of species can quickly lead to its decline. Changing consumption patterns of humans is often cited as the key reason for this unsustainable exploitation of natural resources. 4. Pollution and contamination. Biological systems respond slowly to changes in their surrounding environment. Pollution and contamination cause irreversible damage to species and varieties. 5. Global climate change. Both climate variability and climate change cause biodiversity loss. Species and populations may be lost permanently if they are not provided with enough time to adapt to charging climatic conditions. Consequences of Biodiversity Loss Even with the improvement of technology and science at present, we still have a lot to learn about biodiversity, more so about the consequences of biodiversity loss. However, the basic concept about biodiversity loss was from Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace. Intact ecosystems function best since the organisms composing them are specialized to function in that ecosystem to capture, transfer, utilize and, ultimately, lose both energy and nutrients. The particular species making up an ecosystem determine its productivity, affect nutrient cycles and soil contents, and influence environmental conditions such as water cycles, weather patterns, climate, and other nonbiotic aspects. The loss of biodiversity has many consequences that we understand, and many that we do not. It is apparent that humankind is willing to sustain a great deal of biodiversity loss if there are concomitant benefits to society; we hope they are net benefits. In many cases, the benefits seem to accrue to a few individuals only, with net societal loss. However, it is extremely difficult to estimate the future costs of losses in biodiversity or of environmental damage (Rainforest Conservation Fund, 2017). As stated by Tilman, "The Earth will retain its most striking feature, its biodiversity, only i humans have the prescience to do so. This will occur, it seems, only if we realize the extent to which we use biodiversity (Rainforest Consevation Fund, 2017)." Nutritional Impact of Biodiversity According to the World Health Organization, biodiversity is a vital element of a human being's nutrition because of its influence to food production. Biodiversity is a major factor that contributes to sustainable food production for human beings. A society or a population must have access to a sufficient variety of nutritious food as it is a determinant of their health as human beings. Nutrition and biodiversity are linked at many levels: the ecosystem, with food production as an ecosystem service; the species in the ecosystem; and the genetic diversity within species. Nutritional composition between foods and among varieties/cultivars/breeds of the same food can differ dramatically, affecting micronutrient availability in the diet. Healthy local diets, with adequate average levels of nutrients intake, necessitates maintenance of high biodiversity levels. Intensified and enhanced food production through irrigation, use of fertilizer, plant protection (pesticides), or the introduction of crop varieties and cropping patterns affect biodiversity and thus impact global nutritional status and human health. Habitat simplification, species loss, and species succession often enhance communities, vulnerabilities as a function of environmental receptivity to ill health (WHO, 2007). Health, Biology, and Biodiversity Almost all living organisms are dependent to their environment to live and reproduce. Basic needs of living organisms such as air, water, food, and habitat are provided by its environment. The evolution of human beines was due to the improved access to these basic needs. Advances in agriculture, sanitation, water treatment, and hygiene have had a far greater impact on human health than medical technology. Although the environment sustains human life, it can also cause diseases. Lack of basic necessities is a significant cause of human mortality. Environmental hazards increase the risk of cancer, heart disease, asthma, and many other illnesses. These hazards can be physical, such as pollution, toxic chemicals, and food contaminants, or they can be social, such as dangerous work, poor housing conditions, urban sprawl, and poverty. Unsafe drinking water and poor sanitation and hygiene are responsible for a variety of infectious diseases, such as schistosomiasis, diarrhea, cholera, meningitis, and gastritis. In 2015, approximately 350,000 children under the age of five (mostly in the developing world) died from diarrheal diseases related to unsafe drinking water, and approximately 1.8 billion people used drinking water contaminated with feces. More than two billion people lacked access to basic sanitation. The interrelation between human health and biological diversity is considerable and complex. With the current biodiversity loss at unprecedented rates, the delicate balance between human health and biological diversity is at risk. Environment-Related Illnesses Some human illnesses that are found to be related with its environment include Parkinson's disease, heart disease, cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, diabetes, obesity, occupational injuries, dysentery, arthritis, malaria, and depression. By contrast, activities that promote health and extend human life could have arverse environmertal effects. For example, food production causes environmental damage from pesticides and fertilizers, soil salinization, waste produced by livestock, carbon emissions from food manufacturing and transportation, deforestation, and overfishing. Health care facilities also have adverse environmental impacts. Hospitals use large quantities of electricity and fossil fuels and produce medical wastes. To prevent some diseases, it may be necessary to alter the environment. For example, malaria was eradicated in the United States and other developed nations in the 1940s and 50s as a result of draining wetlands and spraying DDT to kill mosquitoes. A reduction in mortality from starvation or disease can lead to overpopulation, which stresses the environment in many different ways- increasing use of fossil fuels, clearing of land, generating pollution and waste, and so on (Rensik & Portier, 2017). Interestingly, according to experts, climate change could also have a serious impact on human health and could deteriorate farming systems and reduce nutrients in some foods. In this case, biodiversity increases resilience, thus helping adjust to new environmental conditions. Safeguarding of coral reefs, for instance, is essential to reduce the risk of floods, as this extraordinary ecosystem can reduce wave energy by 97%, thus protecting over 100 million people ali over the world. Relationships between human health and the environment raise many ethical, social, and legal dilemmas by forcing people to choose among competing values. Many of the issues at the intersection of health and the environment have to do with managing benefits and risks. For example, pesticides play an important role in increasing crop yields, but they can also pose hazards to human health and the environment. Alternatives to pesticide use create trade-offs in health. The extreme action of stopping all pesticide uses could significantly reduce agricultural productivity, leading to food shortages and increased food prices which would, in turn, increase starvation in some parts of the world. Public health authorities have opted to regulate the use of pesticides to enhance food production while minimizing damage to the environment and human health. Energy production and use help sustain human life, but it can also pose hazards to human health and the environment, such as air and water pollutien, oil spills, and destruction of habitats (Rensik & Portier, 2017). No issue demands greater care in balancing benefits and risks than global warming. A significant percentage of glota! climate change is due to the human production of greenhouse gases. Climate change is likely to cause tremendous harm to the environment and human health, but taking steps to drastically reduce greenhouse gases could have adverse consequences for global, national, and local economies. For example, greatly increasing taxes on fossil fuels would encourage greater fuel efficiency and lower carbon dioxide emissions, but it would also increase the price of transportation, which would lead to widespread inflation and reduced consumer spending power. Managing benefits and risks also raises social justice concerns. In general, people with lower socio-economic status have greater exposure to certain harmful environmental conditions in their homes or at work, such as lead, mercury, pesticides, toxic chemicals, or air and water pollution. Communities and nations should wisely choose a site for a factory, a power plant, or waste dump, or regulating safety in the workplace to minimize impact to the society. The decision-making process should be fair, open, and democratic, so that people who will be affected by environmental risks have a voice in these deliberations and can make their concerns known (Rensik & Portier, 2017). When drafting and implementing environmental health regulations, it is important to consider vulnerable subpopulations. A vulnerable subpopulation is a group with an increased susceptibility to the adverse effects of an environmental risk factor, due to their age, genetics, health status, or some other condition. If an environmental regulation is designed to protect average members of the population, it may fail to adequately protect vulnerable subpopulations. Justice demands that we take care of people who are vulnerable. However, almost everyone in the population has an above-average susceptibility to at least one environmental risk factor. Since providing additional protection to everyone would be costly and impractical, protections must be meted out carefully and the populations who are vulnerable to a particular environmental risk factor must be defined clearly (Rensik & Portier, 2017). In addition to this, various public health strategies pit the rights. of individuals against the good of society, such as mandatory treatment, vaccination, or diagnostic testing; isolation and quarantine; and disease surveillance. The owner of a coal-burning power plant must deal with many laws concerning the operation of the plant, workplace safety, and carbon emissions. A developer who plans to build 150 new homes with land he has purchased may also have to deal with laws concerning storm drainage, water and sewage lines, gas lines, sidewalks, and so on. Restrictions on property rights are justified to protect human heaith and the environment. However, opponents of these restrictions argue that they are often excessive or not adequately supported by scientific evidence (Rensik & Portier, 2017). Human rights issues also come up with research on environmental heuith that involves human subjects. For such research to be ethical, human subjects must give consent, and great care must be taken to ensure that they understand that they can opt out of the research project. Since the late 1990s, some pesticide companies have tested their products on human subjects to gather data to submit to the government for regulatory purposes. Some commentators charge that these experiments are unethical because they place people at unacceptably high risk without a clear benefit to society. Others have argued that the experiments, if properly designed and implemented, could produce important benefits to society by providing useful knowledge about the effects of pesticides that lead to stronger regulations (Rensik & Portier, 2017). With these in mind, a mitigating plan and a workable plan of action should be studied in order to not compromise biodiversity, while at the same time, promote good health among the society. Most of the time, it may seem impossible to really value species singly or in a detailed manner. But we have to consider the entire Earth as a single unit. A loss of single-celled species or a family of wild grass can have adverse effects in the entire biosphere. Biodiversity seen in macro level seems to be still vast and rich, yet if we look at it in micro-level, per species, we have lost too much. Eventually, in the near future, this biodiversity loss will have a great negative effect especially to us humans. "The value of biodiversity is the value of everything" (Rainforest Conservation Fund, n.d.). We must recognize the value of the organisms with which we share the planet. As Costanza et al. (1997) put it, "We mus: begin to give the natural capital stock that produces these services adequate weight in the decision-making process, otherwise, current and continued future human welfare may drastically suffer... many ecosystem services are literally irreplaceable." We do not, and probably cannot, ever evaluate such services adequately, but we can value the ecosystems of the word appropriately (Rainforest Conservation Fund, n.d.). GMO In 2001. Rosalie Ellasus, a former overseas Filipino worker in Singapore turned farmer, attended the Integrated Pest Management Farmers Field School and was introduced to Bt Corn, a genetically modified coin that is resistant to the destructive Asian corn borer, Ms. Ellasus volunteered for demo-testing per field. Bt Corn yielded 7.2 tons per acre as compared to a regular yield of 4.2 tons per hectare. No insecticide spraying was needed. This is one of the success stories of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) (Ongkiko, 2016), Genetic engineering has been with the human society since selective breeding was introduced to humankind and when animais were domesticated. Yet, the process of genetic alterations is all but natural. It was in 1951 that the term genetic engineering was coined by Jack Williamsen, author of the science fiction novel Dragon's Island (Stableford 2004). This was years before actual research findings on the DNA's role in heredity and its structure, the double-helix of Watson and Crick. were published. Through continuous scarch for development, genetic engineering no longer stayed in science fiction novel, It became a reality in science laboratories. The general process of genetic engineering is the deliberate manipulation of the organism's genes, where it may involve transfer of genes from other organism. An antibiotic-resistant E. coli bacteria was created in 1973. To date, there are ongoing researches on GMOs such as using genetically modified male mosquitoes as pest control over female mosquito carriers of Zika virus. However, despite the many possibilities of creating solutions for problems and opening doors for innovations, genetic engineering faces much opposition. Opponents raise ethical, social, and environmental issues related to genetic engineering and its GMOs. Genetically Modified Organism Genetically modified organism (GMO) is the term used for an organism created through genetic engineering. The World Health Organization (WHO, 2014) defires SMO as an "organism, either plant, animal, or microorgenism, in which the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally by mating or natural recombination." Below is a diagram of how bacterial gene is introduced through genetic engineering to plant cells and tissues to develop and breed a genetically modified plant. The development of GMOs was perceived to help in the advancement of technology for the benefit of humans in different industries like agriculture and medicine. GMOs in Food and Agricultural Industries The Center for Ecogenetics and Environmental Health (CEEH, 2013) identified the following roles of GMOs in the food and agricultural industries: 1. Pest resistance - genetically modified plants to resist certau pests. An example is Bt Com. The DNA (genome) of the Bi Corn has been modified with the gene of Bacillus thuringiensis, a soil bacterium that produces proteins which is toxic to corn borers (worms). 2. Virus resistance - genetically modified plants to resist certain viruses. An example is GM papaya or rainbow papaya. The papava ringspot virus (PRSV) is known to be detrimental to papaya plants. The protein of PRSV was introduced to the papaya plant through plant tissue which turned out to be resistant to the virus itself. The effect was like the vaccines humans have agains: measles or influenza virus. 3. Herbicide tolerance -genetically modified plants to tolerate herbicide. An example is Roundup Ready soybean. Glyphosate, an herbicide for weeds, was introduced to soybeans making it tolerant to the herbicide itself. Farmers then can spray the herbicide killing the weeds but not the soybeans. 4. Fortification - genetically modified plants fortified with certain minerals. An example is Golden Rice. Beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, was introduced through biosynthesis genes to the rice, making the rice grains fortified with vitamin A. 5. Cosmetic preservation - genetically modified plants resist natural discoloration. An example is Arctic Apple. The apple variety was genetically modified to suppress the browning of apple due to superficial damage. 6. Increase growth rate — a genetically modified organism that has higher yield in growth than normal species. An example is AquAdvantage salmon. A gene from an ocean pout, an eel-like fish was introduced to Pacific Chinook salmon, making the salmon grow faster than its normal rate. GMOs in Non-Food Crops and Microorganisms Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in non-food crops and some microorganisms involve the following: 1. Flower production - GMOs in flower production are seen in modified color and extended vase life of flowers. Examples are Blue Roses. The so-called "blue" roses, which are, in reality, lilac or purple, contained cyanidin 3,5-diglucoside, together with large amounts of flavonols. The introduction of the flavonoid 31, 51-hydroxylase gene into pelargonidin- or cyanidin- producing rose cultivars diverts the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway toward the production of delphinidin glucosides and the flower color to blue (Elomaa & Holton, 1994). 2. Paper production - modified characteristics of trees for higher yield of paper production. Examples are poplar trees. Lignin is a complex polymer in trees that is removed from wood to make paper through kraft process, through inserting genes that code for ferulic acid in young poplar trees, the lignin structure is modified, making lignin easier to breakdown (Veniza, 2014). 3. Pharmaceutical productions - modified plants to produce pharmaceutical products. Examples are periwinkle plants. Bacterial genes were added to the periwinkle plant to enhance the production of vinblastine, an alkaloid usually added to drugs for cancer treatments like Hodgkin's lymphoma (Runguphan, 2010). 4. Bioremediation - use of modified plants that can assist in the bioremediation of polluted sites. An example is shrub tobacco. Nicotiara glauca, or shrub tobacco genetically modified with phytochelatin TaPCSIl, is used for bioremediation. It shows high level accumulation of zinc, lead, cadmium, nickel, and boron and produces high biomass. 5. Enzyme and drug production — use of modified microorganisms that can produce enzymes for food processing and medicines. One example of this is CGTase. Cyclomaltodextrin glycosyltransferase (CGTase), an enzyme used for food flavor enhancer, is produced in higher quantity by bacterium Bacillus which was genetically modified with the gene of a thermophilic anaerobe, Thermoanaerobacter, carrying CGTase (Pedersen & Jorgensen, 1995). Another example is artemesin. Artemesinic acid is a compound used for anti-malarial drug extracted from sweet wordwood plant. Through genetic engineering, it can be synthetically produced by yeast and bacteria with sweet wordwood plant gene (Zimmer, 2006). 6. GMOs in the medical field - genetic engineering is playing a significant role from diagnosis to treatment of human-dreaded diseases. It helps in the production of drugs, gene therapy, and laboratory researches. One classic example is Humulin, the genetically engineered insulin used by Type 1 diabetes patients who are insulin-dependent. In the past, insulin is extracted from the pancreases. Nutritional and pharmaceutical enhancement - GMO crops 7. of pigs and cows that have caused allergic reactions to some diabetics using it. In 1978, researchers from the City of Hope National Medical Center and Genentech Biotechnology Company were able to produce humar: insulin. The gene for insulin was inserted to bacterial DNA that was able to produce almost exactly the same human insulin. This was a breakthrough in the mass production of human insulin. In 1996, modified human insulin was approved, called the Humalog. Benefits of GMOs Studies show some of the potential benefits of GMOs: Higher efficiency in farming - with the use of pesticide-resistant/herbicide-tolerant GMO crops, there will be less use for herbicides/pesticides, and lower cost for labor and cultivation. Increase in harvest - GMO crops resistant to pests and diseases means increase in potential growth and harvest. Control in fertility — controlling the purity of the hybrid seeds (GMO seeds) ensures higher yields. Increase in food processing - altered characteristics of GMO crops help ease food processing. Improvement of desirable characteristics - GMOs offer longer shelf life, enhanced color and taste, enhanced production or reduction of enzymes, and other modified characteristics of plants, animals, and microorganisms. Nutritional and pharmaceutical enhancement - GMO crops like maize fortified with lysine and Golden Rice fortified with vitamin A and iron. There are now edible vaccines for viral and diarrheal diseases. Reduce the use of fertilizer and pesticides There are over 400 million acres of GMO farmlands all over the world. The top five countries that operate GMO farmlands are the United States, Brazil, Argentina, India, and Canada. Some of the GMO agricultural crops that have been approved for public consumption and are already in the market include: alfalfa, corn, papaya, soya bean, sugar beets, and squash. Most of these GMO crops were made to be resistant to pests. Some examples of common food with GMOs are Kellogg's Corn Flakes, Quaker Chewy Granola Bars, Ultra Slim Fast, Quaker Yellow Corn Meal, and Alpo Dry Pet Food. In the animal industries, there are ongoing researches like studies on Pacific salmon that grows twice faster than the native salmon and chicken resistant to H5N1 bird flu viruses. However, these GMO animals are all in research laboratory and not yet approved for public consumption. Potential Risks of GMOs Despite the promising claims of GMOs, the opponents of GMOs claim otherwise. For example, there are studies that show a link in the adaption of pesticide-resistant GMO crops to the significant growth of super weeds that became pesticide-resistant, too. This caused additional problem to more than 12 million acres of farms in the United States. Opponents of GMOs have the following major concerns: 1. Since genetic engineering is still a young branch of science, there are inadequate studies on the effects of GMOs to humans and the environment. 2. Genetic engineering promotes mutation in organisms which the long term effect is still unknown. 3. Human consumption of GMOs might have the following effects: a. More allergic reactions - GMO food may trigger more allergic reactions, more so create new ones, as side effect of the gene alteration. b. Gene mutation — GMO food may develop abnormalities and mutation, more than the desired product of the gene alteration. c. Antibiotic resistance — GMO food contains antibiotic-resistant genes; this may cause disease-causing bacteria likely to be more antibiotic-resistant too, increasing the possibility of widespread of the disease. d. Nutritional value - GMO food may have change in their nutritional value. Potential Environmental Risks Caused By GMOs Karki (2006) summarized the perceived potential environmental risks caused by GMOs. The identified major risks are the following: 1. Risk in gene flow — there is a potential risk of the modified gene to be transferred from the GMO crop to its wild relative or organism in the soil and human intestine (when ingested). For example, a decaying GMO plant could possibly transfer the modified genes to the bacteria and fungi in the soil. Bacteria and fungi are capable of using a genetic material from their surroundings. There are no studies yet on the effects of the absorbed modified gene to the other organisms. 2. Emergence of new forms of resistance and secondary pests and weed problems - GMO crops resistant to certain pesticides may trigger new form of pest resistance while GMO herbicide-tolerant crops may lead to the over use of the herbicides which may trigger new form of weed resistance. 3. Recombination of Virus and Bacteria to Produce New Pathogens - the modified gene can be transferred and integrated in the viral or bacterial genes which may lead to viral or bacterial gene modification or mutation. This living modified virus and bacteria may then cause new disease that may affect other organisms including human beings. Other direct and indirect environmental risks caused by GMOs (Molfino & Zucco, 2008): 1. Direct environmental risks are: introduction of the GMOs in the natural environment may cause disruption of the natural communities through competition or interference; the possibility of unexpected behavior of the GMOs in the environment if it escapes its intended use and may post threats or become pest; may cause harmful effects to ecosystem processes if GMOs interfere with the natural biochemical cycles; and the persistence of GMO genes after its harvest which may cause negative impacts to the consumer of GMO products.  2. Indirect environmental risks are: alteration of agricultural practices like managing negative impacts of GMOs to the environment such as evolution of insects, pests, and weeds that became resistant to GMO crops; may have impacts to biodiversity caused by the alteration in agricultural practices; and may have varicd environmental impacts due to GMOs interaction and release in the natural environment. Potential Human Health Risks caused by GMOs A major concern in the use and consumption of GMOs is its effect on human beings, primarily on human health. Some potential human health risks are identified (Akhter, 2001), such as: consumption of GMOs may have adverse effects since it is not naturally or organically produced; consumption of GMOs may alter the balance of existing microorganisms in the human digestive system; production of toxins may be detrimental to human health; and production of allergens may have adverse effects on humans. Worldwide, there are many groups that campaign against GMO food consumption. They encourage people to boycott GMO products and to be vigilant in checking if the food they buy has GMO ingredients. In the Philippines, the Supreme Court has ruled against the use of Bt eggplant, another genetically modified crop (Ongkiko, 2016). Other potential risks that raise major concern are: Human Genome Project (HGP) - Mapping of human genes to provide framework for research and studies in the field of niedicine. It was feared that the ability to produce human genetic information would create biases and give much power to people holding the information and to the disadvantage of those who do not have the genetic information. Mutation of genetically- engineered microorganisms - Genetically modified bacteria and viruses may mutate to become more resistant or virulent that may cause more dreadful diseases for human beings. Cloning - The asexual reproduction of an organism using parent cell through genetic engineering. In February 24, 1997, the first mammal, Dolly, a sheep from Scotland, was born through cloning. With its celebrated success came the fear of human cloning. It emerged the ethical issue of man "playing God." Scientists and medical practitioners would definitely continue to search for ways to preserve lives. Genetic engineering is perceived to be one of the keys to this venture. Gene therapy and gene alteration are promising ways to improve human health conditions. On the other hand, great fears loom in the process of this quest. There are many things to be considered before a certain medical process using genetic engineering be accepted. These concerns were affirmed by the reports, of the World Health Organization. WHO reported three major issues on GMOs that are in international public debates. These are the potential risks of allergic reactions, genc transfer/flow, and outcrossing (WHO, 2014). The primary issue on GMOs presented in public debate is its unnatural production or what is termed to be a violation of nature. The creation of new organisms, like GMOs, posts moral issues on defiance to natural laws. Another concern is the potential risks to the environment and human health, to which so much is unknown yet. Biosafety on GMOs There are initiatives for the protection of the general human population regarding the issues and concerns about GMOs. International organizations developed principles and treaties that somehow ensure biosafety ou GMOs. Some of these initiatives are as foilows: The Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex). The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) together with the World Health Organization (WHO) created The Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex). Codex is an intergovernmental body that develops the Codex Alimentarius, know us tie International Food Code. Codex is responsible for the development of  standards, codes of practices, guidelines, and recommendations on food safety. With the pressing issues and concerns on GMOs, in 2003, Codex has developed principles for the human health risk analysis of genetically modified (GM) food products. The principles include pre-market assessments of GM food products and its evaluation of direct and indirect effects. However, the Codex principles has no binding effect on national legislation but through the sanitary and phytosanitary measures of the World Trade Organization, national legislators are encouraged to complement their national standards with the Codex Principles (WHO, 2014). Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, Established in 2003, Cartagena Protocol is an international environmental treaty that regulaies the transboundary movements of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs). The Cartagena Protocol requires exporters to seek consent from the importers before its first shipment of LMOs (WHO, 2014). International Trade Agreement on labeling of GM food and food products. The agreement requires exporters of GM food and food products to label their products and give rights to importing parties to reject or accept the GM products. The premise of this policy is that consumers have the right to know and the freedom to choose GM or non-GM products (Whitman, 2000). The World Health Organization (WHO, 2014) claims that all GM products that are available in the international market have passed safety assessment by national authorities. The safety assessments basically look at the environmental and health risk factors and food safety usually follows the Codex Food Code. GMOs in Philippine Context Introduction of GMOs in our country created issues and controversies similar to other countries with GMOs. There are, of course, proponents and opponents of these issues. The GMO concern started in the 1990s with the creation of the National Committee on Biosafety of the Philippines (NCBP) through Executive Order No. 430 of 1990. The NCBP developed the guidelines on the planned release of genetically manipulated organisms (GMOs) and potentially harmful exotic species in 1998. In 2002, the Department of Agriculture released Administrative Order No. 8, the guideline for the importation and release into the environment of GM plants and plant products. On that same year, the entry of GMO importation started (Baumuller, 2003). The Philippines was marked to be the first country in Asia to approved commercial cultivation of GMOs when GM com planting was approved in 2002 (Serapio & Dela Cruz, 2016). From December 2002 to present, there are 70 GMO applications approved by the Department of Agriculture for the release to the environment, 62 GMOs of which are approved for food feed and processing and the remaining 8 were approved for propagation (Aruelo, 2016). In 2004, the Philippines was classified by International Service for acquisition of agri-biotech applications as one of the fourteen biotech-mega countries which grow 50,000 hectares or more of GMO crops annually (James, 2004). In that same year, Senator Juan Flavier authored a bill on the mandatory labeling of food and food products with GMOs. The Senate did not pass the bill. In 2006, the Philippines became part of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. In the same year, Executive Order No. 514 was issued to address the biosafety requirements of the Cartagena Protocol and the establishment of the National Biosafety Framework (NBF). In 2010, the Organic Agriculture Act was issued, encouraging organic agriculture than GMO-related agriculture. Prior to this act, there are several provinces like Negros Occidental and Negros Oriental which agreed to support organic agriculture. There was the establishment of the Negros Organic Island through a memorandum of agreement (MOA) between the two provinces in 2005. With this MOA, the two provinces were able to ban the entry of GMOs and living GMOs to their provinces through provincial ordinance. Similar to this case, Davao City passed the Organic Agriculture Ordinance in 2010 This city ordinance helps the prevention of field testing of GM Bt eggplant in the UP Mindanao Campus (Aruelo, 2016). In 2012, Representative Teddy Casino, together with other congressmen, filed a bill pushing for the mandatory labeling of GM food and food products. To date, there is no Philippine biosafety law, only biosafety regulations formed under NBF. A study on the biosafety regulations of the Philippines concluded that the existing regulation is weak, which can be fixed through legislation such as a republic act (Richmond, 2006). In December 2015, the Supreme Court ordered to put an end to the field testing of GMO Bt eggplant and declared Administrative Order No. 8, series of 2002 of the Department of Agriculture as null and void. This means that any actions or procedures related to GMO importations and propagation is temporarily put to stop until a new administrative order is issued in accordance with the law. In March 7, 2016, five government agencies namely, the Department of Science and Technology, Department of Agriculture, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Department of Health, and Department of the Interior and Local Government, passed a Joint Department Circular No. 1, series of 2016 on rules and regulations for the research and development, handling and use, transboundary movement, release in the environment, and management of the genetically modified plant and plant products derived from the use of moder biotechnology. This joint department circular paves way to issuance of new permits for planting and importing GM crops in the country. SUMMARY Genetic engineering is an emerging field of science. Its quests are to preserve and prolong life. In more than four decades since the first genetically modified bacteria was produced, thousands of genetically modified organisms have been created and propagated. Some are approved by experts and government authorities for human use and consumption while others are kept in institutional research laboratories subject for more experiments. There are advantages and disadvantages in using genetic engineering in both fields of medicine and food and agriculture, there are controversies that are still debatable up to the present. The major concern of the opponents is the long-term effect of GMOs to humans while the proponents' flagship is the success stories of the GMO recipients. There is still a long way to go for GMOs to prove itself, as humans seek answers to life's predicaments or as humans play like God.