Reproductive Anatomy PDF

LESSON III– THE GENDER OF SEXUALITY A. THE REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY OF MALE, FEMALE, AND INTERSEX I. MALE GENITALIA 1.1.External 1.1.1. Prepuce: foreskin covering head of penis; removed in the male circumcision 1.1.2. Penis: glans (head), shaft,...

LESSON III– THE GENDER OF SEXUALITY A. THE REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY OF MALE, FEMALE, AND INTERSEX I. MALE GENITALIA 1.1.External 1.1.1. Prepuce: foreskin covering head of penis; removed in the male circumcision 1.1.2. Penis: glans (head), shaft, and root. The glans is particularly sensitive to stimulation. Running the length of the penis is the urethra surrounded by the spongy body and two cylindrical chambers known as the cavernous bodies. During arousal, these become engorged with blood, resulting in erection. 1.1.3. Corona: rim of glands where it arises from the shaft 1.1.4. Frenulum: thin strip of skin connecting glans and shaft on the underside of penis 1.1.5. Scrotum: sac that encloses the two compartments housing the testes 1.1.6. Urethral opening/orifice: found on head of the penis; this is the end of tube connected to bladder and used for urination. It is also the tube to which internal structures deliver semen by which male ejaculates; 1.1.7. Perineum: area of skin separating the genitalia from the anus, distance is greater in male than females 1.2.Internal 1.2.1. Testes: produce androgen, particularly large quantities of testosterone, which greatly influence male development and drive sexual motivation; also produce sperm cells in virtually unlimited quantity over the entire course of the lifespan 1.2.2. Vas Deferens: travels from testicle toward urethra carrying sperm 1.2.3. Seminal Vesicles: two glands that produce alkaline fluid rich in fructose sugar, comprising some 70% of semen volume. Alkaline nature may stimulate sperm to start self-propulsion and sugar may provide sperm nutrients. Ducts carry fluid and connect with vas deferens forming ejaculatory ducts; 1.2.4. Ejaculatory Ducts: connect vas deferens to urethra 1.2.5. Prostate: gland producing alkaline secretions that account for about 30% of semen volume. Alkaline nature may help counteract otherwise, acidic environment of urethra and vagina making them more hospitable for sperm. Fluid passes through a series of ducts along wall of urethra 1.2.6. Urethra: tube within penis that carries sperm and semen the rest of the way to the opening of the penis 1.3.The physiology of the male reproductive system involves primary phases of sexual response 1  1.3.1. These include erection of the penis for penetration of the female vagina and ejaculation 1.3.2. This allows semen and the sperm it contains to be propelled into the vagina 1.4.The Male Hormone: Testosterone 1.4.1. major male hormone produced mainly by the testes, but there are other glands called the adrenal glands that also produce some testosterone. 1.4.2. In case a man has lost his testes, these glands would continue to produce testosterone to support the male physical appearance. 1.4.3. This hormone is responsible for the growth and development of a boy during adolescence and for the development of sperm and secondary sexual characteristics. 2 II. FEMALE GENITALIA 2.1.External 2.1.1. Vulva: all the external genital structures taken together; 2.1.2. Mons Veneris: pads of fatty tissue between pubic bone and skin; 2.1.3. Labia Majora: outer lips surrounding all other structures 2.1.4. Prepuce: clitoral hood (foreskin above and covering clitoris); 2.1.5. Clitoris: glans (head), shaft, and crura (root), the clitoris is particularly sensitive to stimulation 2.1.6. Labia Minora: inner lips surrounding the vestibule where sweat and oil glands, extensive blood vessels, and nerve endings are located; 2.1.7. Vestibule: area surrounding the urethral opening and vagina, which is highly sensitive with extensive blood vessels and nerve endings. 2.1.8. Urethral Opening: end of tube connecting to bladder and used for urination 2.1.9. Vaginal Opening: also called introitus; 2.1.10. Perineum: area of skin separating the genitalia from the anus; distance is less in female than males 2.2.Internal 2.2.1. Vagina: collapsible canal extending from vaginal opening back and upward into body to cervix and uterus. During arousal, it is engorged with blood. This aids its expansion and triggers the release of lubricants from vaginal mucosa; 2.2.2. Cervix: small end of uterus to which vaginal leads. It is the opening in cervix leading to interior of uterus; 2.2.3. Uterus: womb, organ within pelvic zone where fetus is carried; 2.2.4. Fallopian Tubes: carry egg cells from ovaries to uterus, this is where fertilization occurs 2.2.5. Ovaries: produce estrogen and progesterone. 3  2.3.Female Hormones 2.3.1. Estrogen: Influences female sex characteristics and initiates menstrual cycle 2.3.2. Progesterone: aids in regulation of menstrual cycle and promotes mature development of uterine lining to allow for zygote implantation III. FEMALE BREASTS 3.1.Each breast has 15 to 20 sections, called lobes. They are arranged like the petals of a daisy. 3.2.Each lobe has many smaller structures called lobules. These end in dozens of tiny bulbs that can produce milk. 3.3.The lobes, lobules, and bulbs are all linked by thin tubes called ducts. 3.4.These ducts lead to the nipple in the center of a dark area of skin called the areola. 3.5.Fat fills the spaces between lobules and ducts. 3.6.There are no muscles in the breast, but muscles lie under each breast and cover the ribs. 3.7.Each breast also contains blood vessels and vessels that carry lymph. 3.8.The lymph vessels lead to small bean-shaped organs called lymph nodes. 3.8.1. These lymph nodes are found in clusters under the arm, above the collarbone, and in the chest. They are also in many other parts of the body. 3.8.2. Lymph nodes: small lumps of tissue that contain white blood cells, which fight infection. 3.8.3. They are part of your body’s immune system. They filter your lymph fluid, which is composed of fluid and waste products created by the body’s tissues. 3.8.4. Lymph nodes help to fight infections. The glands near the infection can swell up (lymphadenopathy). 4 IV. INTERSEX 4.1.People who are intersex have genitals, chromosomes or reproductive organs that don’t fit into a male/female sex binary. 4.2.Their genitals might not match their reproductive organs, or they may have traits of both. 4.3.Being intersex may be evident at birth, childhood, later in adulthood or never. Being intersex isn’t a disorder, disease or condition. 4.4.Causes: 4.4.1. Genetically inherited (passed from one generation to the next in a family). 4.4.2. Changes to an androgen hormone receptor gene. 4.4.3. Natural or synthetic hormone exposure occurring during embryo development. 4.4.4. Missing or out-of-place sex-determining region Y gene (SRY). 4.4.5. Other genetic conditions causing abnormal levels of hormones related to genital development. 4.5.Implications 4.5.1. Combination of Chromosomes: Everyone inherits sex- linked chromosomes from their parents. People who are male have XY chromosomes. People who are females have XX chromosomes. People who are intersex may have a mix of chromosomes, such as XXY. Or they may have some cells that are XY and some cells that are XX. Or they may have just one X chromosome (XO). Other combinations can occur too. 4.5.2. Mixed Genitals and Sex Organs: A person who is intersex may have ovarian and testicular tissue (ovotestes). For example, you may have genitals that are associated with being assigned male at birth (AMAB), like a penis. At the same time, you may have internal reproductive anatomy or hormone levels more closely associated with being assigned female at birth (AFAB), like estrogen. 5  B. COMMONALITIES BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY 5.1.Hypothalamus: This portion of the brain sends signals to the pituitary gland located beneath it; sends a hormonal signal called gonadotropin- releasing hormone (GRH) to the pituitary gland. 5.2.Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GRH): causes the pituitary gland in the brain to make and secrete the hormones luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). 5.2.1. In men, these hormones cause the testicles to make testosterone. 5.2.2. In women, they cause the ovaries to make estrogen and progesterone. 5.3.In response to the GRH signal, the pituitary gland releases two hormones that circulate in the blood: luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). 5.3.1. These hormones travel throughout the body, triggering further hormone releases and physiological changes. 5.4.There are feedback loops that tightly regulate the levels of circulating hormones. In addition to GRH, LH, and FSH, the hormones testosterone, estrogen and progesterone are important in reproductive signaling. 5.5.While we will focus on the effects of testosterone in males and estrogen and progesterone in females, all of these hormones are present and important in both males and females. 6  C. PINK BRAIN/BLUE BRAIN I. ANATOMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MALE BRAIN INTRODUCTION According to the study of Ritchie Stuart, men have higher brain volumes in every subcortical region: - Hippocampus (which plays broad roles in memory and spatial awareness). - Amygdala (emotions, memory, and decision-making skills). - Striatum (Learning, inhibition and reward processing) - Thalamus (processing and relaying sensory information to other parts of brain) [+]: The hormones in the male brain: o Testosterone: A hormone that plays a key role in developing male characteristics and influences behavior and brain function; Promotes muscle growth, bone density, and the development of secondary sexual characteristics; Influences competitiveness, aggression, and risk-taking behaviors. o Vasopressin: A hormone that is associated with social behavior, stress response, and memory. o MIS (Müllerian Inhibiting Substance): A hormone important for male sexual development during fetal growth. Men have 2.5 times more brain space in the hypothalamus dedicated to sexual desire, making them more frequently ready to seize sexual opportunities. 7  Men also have larger brain centers for muscular action and aggression. His brain circuits for mate protection and territorial defense are hormonally primed for action starting at puberty. Scientists view brain areas such as the ACC (anterior cingulate cortex), TPJ (temporoparietal junction), and RCZ (rostral cingulate zone) as central "hubs" of brain activity. These hubs transmit electrical signals to other brain regions, which in turn affects whether specific behaviors are initiated or suppressed. AREAS OF THE MALE BRAIN 1. Medial Preoptic Area (MPOA): This is the area for sexual pursuit, found in the hypothalamus, and it is 2.5 times larger in the male. Men need it to start an erection. It is one of the most important areas for the regulation of instinctively motivated behaviors, such as parental behavior, mating behavior and aggression (Tsuneoka, 2019). 2. Temporal Parietal Junction (TPJ): The solution seeker, this “cognitive empathy” brain hub rallies the brain’s resources to solve distressing problems while taking into account the perspective of the other person or people involved. During interpersonal emotional exchanges, it’s more active in the male brain, comes on-line more quickly, and races toward a “fix-it-fast” solution. 3. DORSAL PREMAMMILLARY NUCLEUS (DPN): The defend-your-turf area, it lies deep inside the hypothalamus and contains the circuitry for a male’s instinctive one-upmanship, territorial defense, fear, and aggression. It’s larger in males than in females and contains special circuits to detect territorial challenges by other males, making men more sensitive to potential turf threats. It’s part of the predator-responsive circuit of the medial hypothalamus (Gross and Canteras, 2012). 4. Amygdala: The alarm system for threats, fear, and danger. Drives emotional impulses. It gets fired up to fight by testosterone, vasopressin, and cortisol and is calmed by oxytocin. This area is larger in men than in women. 5. Rostral Anterior Cingulate Cortex (rACC): The RCZ is the brain center for processing social errors. It alerts us when we’re not hitting the mark in our relationship or job. During puberty, it may help males reset their facial responses to hide their emotions; affective division of the ACC, it is ideally positioned between limbic and cortical structures to integrate emotion and cognition and is thereby primed to influence amygdala-dependent learning. 6. Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA): It’s the motivation center—an area deep in the center of the brain that manufactures dopamine, a neurotransmitter required for initiating movement, motivation, and reward. It is more active in the male brain. 7. Periaqueductal Gray (PAG): The PAG is part of the brain’s pain circuit, helping to control involuntary pleasure and pain. During sexual intercourse, it is the center for pain suppression, intense pleasure, and moaning. It is more active during sex in the male brain. 8. MIRROR-NEURON SYSTEM (MNS): The “I feel what you feel” emotional empathy system. Gets in sync with others’ emotions by reading facial 8  expressions and interpreting tone of voice and other nonverbal emotional cues. It is larger and more active in the female brain. 9. Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC): It is the worry-wart, fear-of-punishment area and center of sexual performance anxiety. It’s smaller in men than in women. It weighs options, detects conflicts, motivates decisions. Testosterone decreases worry about punishment. The ACC is also the area for self- consciousness. 10. Prefrontal Cortex (PFC): The CEO of the brain, the PFC focuses on the matter at hand and makes good judgments. This “pay total attention to this now” area also works as an inhibiting system to put the brakes on impulses. It’s larger in women and matures faster in females than in males by one to two years. NEUROHORMONES 1. VASOPRESSIN a. The white Knight, hormone of Gallantry (courtesy), and Monogamy (having one sexual partner), aggressively protecting and defending turf, mate, and children b. Runs the male brain circuits and enhances masculinity. 2. MÜLLERIAN INHIBITING SUBSTANCE (MIS) a. Characteristics of being strong, tough, and fearless. b. MIS builds brain circuits for exploratory behavior, suppresses brain circuits for female-type behaviors, destroys the female reproductive organs (fetal development), and helps build the male reproductive organs and brain circuits. 3. OXYTOCIN a. characterized as Lion tamer hormone. b. increases empathic ability and builds trust circuits, romantic-love circuits, c. and attachment circuits in the brain. d. He promotes feelings of safety and security and is to blame for a man’s “postcoital narcolepsy” e. Reduces stress hormones, lowers men’s blood pressure, and plays a major role in father’s bonding with their infants 4. PROLACTIN a. It causes sympathetic pregnancy (couvade syndrome) in fathers-to-be and increases dads’ ability to hear their baby’s cry. b. It stimulates connections in the male brain for paternal behavior and decreases sex drive. 5. CORTISOL a. Characterize as Gladiator When threatened, he is angry, fired up, and willing to fight for life and limb. 6. ANDROSTENEDIONE a. Charms and seduce women, Secretes sexual scent of attraction (Pheromones) 7. DOPAMINE a. Energizer hormone. b. Characterized by being: excited and highly motivated. c. Reward motivated behavior 9  d. Regulate movement, attention, learning and emotional responses e. Contributes to feeling pleasure and satisfaction (Levine, D., n.d.) II. ANATOMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FEMALE BRAIN INTRODUCTION Neurosciences have found that women’s brains often have stronger connections between the hemispheres. Research conducted by Indiana University showed that women use both sides of their brain while listening while men only use one side. This suggests why women are considered better listeners. AREAS OF THE FEMALE BRAIN 1. PREFRONTAL CORTEX: Considered as the “CEO of the brain” the PFC makes decisions and inhibits rash behaviors. It’s where we process anger, fear, and aggression. Its larger in women and matures in full two years before men, usually by the early 20’s. Because women have larger prefrontal cortex's, they may be less easy to make angry. 2. FRONTAL CORTEX: Responsible for much of our decision-making ability, it is fatter and more complex in women than in men. 3. ANTERIOR CINGULATE CORTEX: The source of women’s “gut feelings” is larger in women. It weighs options, detects conflicts, motivates decisions, ad is known as the area of self- consciousness. Also called the “worrywart” center, considered the source of “sexual performance anxiety” 4. INSULA CORTEX: The insula is a portion of the cerebral cortex that processes gut feelings and is larger in women. The relationship between a woman’s gut feeling and her intuitive hunches is grounded in biology. 5. AMYGDALA: When women were showed a horror film, their left-side amygdala (they have two), which pays attention to detail and internal thought, lit up. When men saw the same slasher flick, their right–side was activated, which is associated with action and external environment. Scientists believe this may account for why men are more likely to respond with their fists when attacked or threatened. 6. HIPPOCAMPUS: The brain’s memory center that turns short-term memories into long-term ones. It’s larger in women than in men. Women have an often better memory for details, both pleasant and unpleasant. 7. MIRROR NEURON SYSTEM: It’s when neurons in the brain fire when a person experience an event and when she observes an action. Known as the body’s “empathy” system, which enables a person to “feel” the pain of others. Used in understanding the action of other people, language acquisition through imitation, and the “I know how you feel” sentiment. 8. WHITE MATTER: Women are thought to have 10 times the amount of “white matter” than men, White matter works to network or connect different processing centers of the brain, making a female more efficient in multi – tasking skills. Some researchers believe it might play a role in why women often excel at language and verbal skills. But, like the gray matter hypothesis, these are controversial conclusion. 9. LIMBIC CORTEX: Part of the limbic system, responsible for regulating emotion, is larger in women. Scientists say that many women are better able to 10  express emotion because of this. Having larger limbic cortices, however make females more likely to suffer from depression, doctors say. NEUROENDOCRINOLOGY OF FEMALE BRAIN - Male and female brains process the same neurochemicals but to different degrees and through gender-specific body-brain connections. o Some dominant neurochemicals are serotonin, which, among other things, helps us sit still; o testosterone, our sex and aggression chemical; o estrogen, a female growth and reproductive chemical; o and oxytocin, a bonding-relationship chemical. - In part, because of differences in processing these chemicals, males on average tend to be less inclined to sit still for as long as females and tend to be more physically impulsive and aggressive. o Additionally, males process less of the bonding chemical oxytocin than females. - Overall, a major takeaway of chemistry differences is to realize that our boys at times need different strategies for stress release than our girls. - Hormones are chemical messengers that transport signals around the body. Different hormones have different functions. Some stimulate growth, others change our mood, and still others regulate metabolism or even control the reproductive cycle. When hormone levels are abnormal, signs of abnormal behavior and illness will arise – e.g., epileptic seizures, depression, weight gain. 1. ESTROGEN a. major female hormone; lion’s share comes from the ovaries, but small amounts are produced in the adrenal glands and fat cells. During pregnancy, the placenta also makes estrogen. b. plays a big role in reproductive and sexual development, including puberty, menstruation, pregnancy, menopause c. levels can be determined by a blood test. While it can vary from person to person, these are what’s considered the normal ranges in picograms per milliliter (pg/mL): 2. PROGESTERONE a. The ovaries produce the female sex hormone progesterone after ovulation. During pregnancy, the placenta also produces some. b. The role of progesterone is to prepare the lining of the uterus for a fertilized egg, support pregnancy, suppress estrogen production after ovulation c. levels can be determined by a blood test. Normal ranges are in nanograms per milliliter (ng/mL): 3. TESTOSTERONE a. Small amounts of testosterone come from the adrenal glands and ovaries. This hormone plays a role in several body functions, including: sexual desire; regulation of the; menstrual cycle; bone and muscle strength 11 [+] - Female sex hormones are integral to many body functions. But your hormonal needs change a great deal as you leave childhood and enter puberty. o They also change dramatically if you become pregnant, give birth, or breastfeed. And they continue to change as you near menopause. - Most females enter puberty between the ages of 8 and 13. And it all happens because of hormones. o The luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) are produced in the pituitary gland. o Production increases at puberty, which in turn stimulates the sex hormones —especially estrogen. - MENSTRUATION o The first menstrual period (menarche) happens about two to three years after the breasts begin to develop. Again, it’s different for everybody, but most females get their first period between the ages of 10 and 16. § FOLLICULAR PHASE Þ Every month, the uterus thickens in preparation for a fertilized egg. When there’s no fertilized egg, estrogen and progesterone levels stay low. This prompts your uterus to shed its lining. Þ The day you start to bleed is day 1 of your cycle, or the follicular phase. Þ The pituitary gland starts to produce a little more FSH. This spurs growth of follicles in your ovaries. Þ Within each follicle is an egg. As sex hormone levels drop, only a single, dominant follicle will continue to grow. Þ As this follicle produces more estrogen, the other follicles break down. Higher levels of estrogen stimulate an LH surge. This phase lasts about two weeks. § OVULATORY PHASE Þ Next comes the ovulatory phase. LH causes the follicle to rupture and release the egg. This phase lasts about 16 to 32 hours. Fertilization can only occur for about 12 hours after the egg has left the ovary. § LUTEAL PHASE Þ The luteal phase starts after ovulation. The ruptured follicle closes and the production of progesterone increases. This gets the uterus ready to receive a fertilized egg. If that doesn’t happen, estrogen and progesterone decrease again and the cycle starts all over. o The entire menstrual cycle lasts around 25 to 36 days. Bleeding lasts between 3 and 7 days. But. this, too, varies quite a bit. Your cycle may be quite irregular for the first few years. It can also vary at different times of your life or when you use hormonal contraceptives. 12 - SEXUAL DESIRE o Estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone all play a role in female sexual desire — also called libido — and sexual functioning. o Due to hormonal fluctuations, females are generally at the peak of sexual desire just before ovulation. o There’s generally less fluctuation in libido if you’re using hormonal birth control methods, which affect hormone levels. Your libido may also fluctuate less after menopause. o Undergoing surgery to remove your adrenal glands or ovaries cuts down on testosterone production, which can cause a drop in your libido. - PREGNANCY o During the luteal phase of your cycle, the rise in progesterone prepares your uterus to receive a fertilized egg. The uterine walls get thick and fill with nutrients and other fluids to sustain an embryo. o Progesterone thickens the cervix to protect the uterus from bacteria and sperm. Estrogen levels are also higher, contributing to the thickening of the lining of the uterus. Both hormones help milk ducts in the breasts to dilate. o As soon as conception takes place, females start to produce human chorionic gonadotropin hormone (hCG). This is the hormone that shows up in their urine and is used to test for pregnancy. It also boosts the production of estrogen and progesterone, preventing menstruation and helping to sustain the pregnancy. o Human placental lactogen (hPL): a hormone made by the placenta. In addition to providing nutrients for the baby, it helps stimulate milk glands for breastfeeding. o Relaxin aids in the implantation and growth of the placenta and helps stop contractions from happening too soon. As labor begins, this hormone helps relax ligaments in the pelvis. - POST-CHILDBIRTH AND BREASTFEEDING o Once pregnancy ends, hormone levels start to fall immediately. They eventually reach pre-pregnancy levels. A sudden, significant drop in estrogen and progesterone may be a contributing factor in the development of postpartum depression. o Breastfeeding lowers estrogen levels and can prevent ovulation. This isn’t always the case, however, so you’ll still need birth control to prevent another pregnancy. 13 LESSON IV – THE ‘F’ WORD: FEMINISM i. FEMINISM ¨ belief in social, economic, and political equality of the sexes. Although largely originating in the West, feminism is manifested worldwide and is represented by various institutions committed to activity on behalf of women’s rights and interests ¨ coined in France in the late 1800s: “woman”—femme with suffix ism, meaning political position (Political position about women) ¨ an interdisciplinary approach to issues of equality and equity based on gender, gender expression, gender identity, sex, and sexuality as understood through social theories and political activism. ¨ FEMINIST Þ A person who strongly believe that social, economic, and political equality of the sexes ¨ FEMINIST THEORY Þ aims to interrogate inequalities and inequities along the intersectional lines of ability, class, gender, race, sex, and sexuality Þ feminists seek to effect change in areas where these intersectionalities create power inequity. ¨ FEMINIST POLITICAL ACTIVISTS Þ campaign in areas such as reproductive rights, domestic violence, fairness, social justice, and workplace issues such as medical leave, equal pay, and sexual harassment and discrimination. Þ Anytime stereotyping, objectification, infringements of human rights, or intersectional oppression occurs, it's a feminist issue ii. TYPES OF FEMINISM ¨ Liberal Feminism: holds that women and men are alike and equal in most respects. They believe that they should have equal rights, roles, and opportunities ¨ Cultural Feminism: holds that women and men are fundamentally different and, therefore, should have different rights, roles, and opportunities ¨ Radical Feminism: o also called the women’s liberation movement; o relies on the consciousness-raising groups, in which women are gathered to talk informally about personal experiences with sexism and to link those personal experiences to larger social and political structures o commitment to equality and its deep suspicion of hierarchy led radical feminists to insist on leaderless discussions so that participants would have equal power o relied on revolutionary analysis and politics along with high- profile public events to call attention to the oppression of women and to demand changes o examples: 14  § Occupation of the Ladies’ Home Journal Office, § Speak-outs about silenced issues such as rape and abortion, § Protests against the Miss America pageants in 1968 and 1969 § Guerilla theater dramatize public issues o also fostered the activism of many lesbian, bisexual, trans, and gender nonconforming women. Some of the activists had been involved with women’s rights, civil rights, and gay liberation movements ¨ Black Feminism/Womanism: o explicitly dedicated to foregrounding issues of race and class as they are related to gender o highlights how oppressions intersect, womanists work to shape a political movement specific to the concerns of the black women o womanists believe that compared to white women, black women as a group are more often single, bear more children, are paid less, and assume more financial responsibility for women ¨ Multiracial Feminism: o liberation movement characterized by global perspective, coalition-building, and emphasis on multiple systems of domination that shape women’s lives o they insist that gender does not have universal meaning. Instead, what gender means and how it affects their lives varies as a result of race, economic class, sexual orientation, gender identity, and so forth ¨ Riot Grrrl Movement: o Underground feminist movement that began in the late 1980s and was aligned with punk music, radical politics, and Do-It- Yourself (DIY) ethics o they created self-published music, art, and magazines (“zines”) in order to tell women’s stories and build a “Revolution, Girl Style Now” ¨ Eco-feminism: o examines the connections between women and nature. o uses the basic feminist tenets of equality between genders, a revaluing of non-patriarchal or nonlinear structures, and a view of the world that respects organic processes, holistic connections, and the merits of intuition and collaboration. o there is a connection between the effort to control and subordinate women and the struggle to dominate nature o understand women’s oppression as a specific example of an overarching cultural ideology that esteems oppression. o exploitation, domination, and aggression oppress women, men, children, animals, and the planet itself 15 iii. Philippine Context ¨ Some historical events that contributed to Feminism in the Philippines: 1. The Bayan and the Babaylan: Women in Pre-colonial Philippines (pre-1521): o Babaylan Þ major representation of the status accorded to women in a balangay or barangay Þ proto-scientist' among the ancient Filipinos. Þ Although the role was often given to women, there were also biological males who performed the role of babaylan albeit most of them were effeminate or blatantly homosexual. Þ not subservient to the datu Þ datu and the babaylan worked together on important social activities. Þ Being the spiritual leader, the babaylan was in charge of rituals, including those of agricultural significance. Þ Knowledge/Capabilities: astronomy; determined the right time to clear the land, as well as the planting and harvest cycle; medicine 2. Chains of Chastity: The Colonization of Women's Body in Hispanic Philippines (March 1521-June 1898) o Spanish friars demonized the babaylans and claimed that the babaylans were endowed with powers from black magic. o The Spanish friars police the religious beliefs of women, take control of their bodies and libidos, suppress and control their sexuality through confessions. o The Catholic Church, in hoisting itself as the only source of morality for its subjects, transcended the public sphere and penetrated even the most private and individual aspect of the locals' lives. In such endeavor, the woman's body was one of the most vulnerable targets, especially in the context of feudal and patriarchal Spanish Catholic Church 3. Sisters in Arms: Revolutionaries, suffragists, and guerillas (1896-20th century) o The contribution of women in the revolution was not only logistical but also intellectual. Women also led troops into battles themselves. 4. World War II o Most women became victims of systemic rape, comfort women. Some were forcibly abducted, made to do chores for the Japanese soldiers o There were women who actively participated in the armed resistance against the Japanese oppressors o Felipa Culala-alias “ Dayang-dayang” 16  Þ a female guerilla commander who led one of the earliest guerilla forces against the Japanese in 1942 as part of the popular armed resistance by a group called HUKBALAHAP or Hukbong Bayan Laban sa mga Hapon (People's ArmyAgainst the Japanese). Þ She led a successful ambush of combined Japanese and Filipino forces, killing some 30-40 Japanese forces and 68 Filipino police, and capturing their armaments. Women guerrillas were stereotypically labeled as Huk Amazons by the press and the post-war Philippine government. 5. Post-1969 Elections o Malayang Kilusan ng Bagong Kababaihan or MAKIBAKA Þ ‘attempted to situate women's liberation within the context of the struggle against foreign domination and class oppression' (Valte, 1992: 53) Þ The organization dwindled due to the dilution of the women's issues in the national democratic framework of the Communist Party of the Philippines, which asserted that women's empowerment would come only when the class revolution had been won. Þ MAKIBAKA found itself primarily occupied with national issues, and attempts to forge a link between women's concerns and national issues, 'proved to be ambitious, and perhaps, untimely‘ (Santos, 2004: 36) 6. 1980s o Kilusang Kababaihang Pilipina or PILIPINA (1981) and Katipunan ng Kalayaan para sa Kababaihan or KALAYAAN (1983) Þ Both of these new organizations saw the need for a separate and autonomous women's movement with respect to the national democratic framework Þ first groups to focus on women's issues, both on the personal and societal levels. Both groups launched study sessions and campaigns against sexism in media, the violation of women's reproductive rights, gender violence, prostitution and gender inequality in access to employment as well as income. 17