SS121 ETHICS REVISED MODULE v4.pdf

 Table of Contents Lesson 1: Introduction to Ethics 4 1.1 Definition of Ethics 7 1.2 Importance of Studying Ethics...

 Table of Contents Lesson 1: Introduction to Ethics 4 1.1 Definition of Ethics 7 1.2 Importance of Studying Ethics 8 1.3 Moral vs. Non-Moral Standards 9 1.4 Moral Dilemma 10 1.5 Freedom 11 Lesson 2: The Moral Agent 18 2.1 Human Acts vs. Acts of Man 20 2.2 Culture and Morality 22 2.3 Cultural Relativism 26 2.4 Universal Values 27 2.5 The Filipino Way 28 Lesson 3: The Act 31 3.1 Feelings as instinctive and trained response to moral dilemmas 33 3.2 Reason and impartiality as requirements for ethics 37 3.2.1 7 step moral reasoning process 39 3.3 Moral Courage 40 Lesson 4: Ethical Theories and Principles 42 4.1 Virtue Ethics 44 4.2 Natural Law Theory 46 4.3 Utilitarianism 51 4.4 Kantian Ethics 48 4.5 Justice and Fairness (John Rawls) 52 Lesson 5: Taxation 57 5.1 Meaning of Taxation 61 5.2 Philosophical View of Taxation 62 Lesson 6 Ethical Challenges of Today 66 6.1 Moral challenges of Globalization 68  6.2 Millennials And “Filennials”: Ethical Challenges and Responses 70 6.3 Difference Between Ethics and Religion 71 References 78  VISION: A premiere Higher Institution in Agri-Fisheries and Socio-cultural Development in the ASEAN Region. MISSION: DNSC strives to produce competent human resource, generate and utilize knowledge and technology, uphold good governance and quality management system for sustainable resources and resilient communities. CORE VALUES: The College commits to pursue our vision, accomplish our mission and achieve our goals through our core values of: Excellence, Integrity, Innovation, Stewardship, Love of God and Country. Ethics | 1 Course Description (adopted from CHED) Ethics deals with principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of the person, society, and in interaction with the environment and other shared resources. (CMO 20 s 2013) Morality pertains to the standards of right and wrong that an individual originally picks up from the community. The course discusses the context and principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of individual, society, and in interaction with the environment and other shared resources. The course also teaches students to make moral decisions by using dominant moral frameworks and by applying a seven-step moral reasoning model to analyze and solve moral dilemmas. The course is organized according to the three (3) main elements of the moral experience: (a) agent, including context-cultural, communal, and environment; (b) the act; and (c) reason or framework (for the act). This course includes the mandatory topic on taxation. Course Code : SS121 Course Credits : 3 units Contact Hours/Week : 3 hours/week Pre-requisite : None Course Requirements: Summative Assessments (Midterm and 60 % Final Exam) Performance Tasks/ Written Outputs 40 % Total 100% Ethics | 2 About the Authors: Daryl Mark D. Jakosalem finished his Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy at the St. Francis Xavier College Seminary. He also earned professional education units from the Southeastern College of Padada, Inc. He passed the Licensure Examination for Professional Teachers last October 2022. He is currently pursuing his Master of Arts in Philosophy at the Notre Dame University. Hilbert S. Narciso finished his Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy at the Queen of Apostles College Seminary. He also graduated with a degree in Bachelor of Sacred Theology at University of Santo Tomas. He is currently pursuing his Master of Arts in Philosophy at the Ateneo de Davao University. Ethics | 3  SS121 ETHICS LESSON 1 Introduction to Ethics Key Concepts 1.1 Definition of Ethics 1.2 Importance of Studying Ethics 1.3 Moral vs. Non-Moral Standards 1.4 Moral Dilemma 1.5 Freedom DAVAO DEL NORTE STATE COLLEGE Ethics | 4 Lesson 1: Introduction to Ethics Learning Outcomes:  Define what Ethics is  Distinguish moral from non-moral standards  Identify the different levels of moral dilemma on actual events  Explain why only human beings can be ethical  Create a personal belief on freedom Activity: In the table below, identify whether you consider a certain act as “always good” in all circumstance, “always bad” in all circumstance, or if “it depends” on the circumstance. Put a check on the box if your answer is either of the first options above. If your answer is the latter, instead of putting a check, identify which of the possible factor/s given below may affect that judgment. Possible factors affecting judgment: - Culture - Religious belief - Tradition - Law of the land - Others (specify your answer) ACT ALWAYS GOOD ALWAYS IT DEPENDS BAD Lying Euthanasia or mercy- killing Donating to charity Child-marriage Stealing Preserving natural resources Rape Suicide Polygamy Abortion Ethics | 5 Analysis: Having already an idea of right and wrong, and good and bad, we may have refreshed our previous understanding of the basic principles and concept of ethics. With this prior knowledge, how do you reflect to the following question below? State your opinion in short but concise manner. 1. How do you think does social norm affects a person’s judgment and perception of what good and bad is? 2. Would it be possible for a society to exist peaceably without a unified standard or basis of right and wrong? Explain your answer briefly. Abstraction: The Ring of Gyges In the Republic (Book 2: 359a-360d), Plato tells the story of a shepherd named Gyges who found a magic ring that could turn him invisible. He proceeded to use the power of the ring to seduce the queen, murder the king and rule the land. Why did he do so? It is because he could and, in the words of the character Glaucon, it would be foolish of him not to do so. Now, suppose you have in your possession that very same ring, what would you do? When nobody could see you, would you still cross the street using the pedestrian crossing? When nobody could see you, would you still pay for the bread you took from the counter? When nobody could see you, would you pass the opportunity of taking the original copy of the exam or, better yet, the answer key to ensure a perfect score? You might be wondering, “Why should human beings be moral? Why should I do what is right? Here are some compelling reasons: a. It is enlightened self-interest- “I will be better off” b. It is traditional law- “Because some authority says so” c. It is a responsibility- “It is expected of me” d. It is what is fair and equitable- “It is about fairness and justice” But most of all, e. People have shared human needs, goals, desires, and/or objectives; and these are better met when people treat each other in a manner that promotes what is right and good. WHAT IS ETHICS? Have you asked yourself, what does it mean to think ethically? What makes a moral life moral? What makes an action good or bad? These questions are not only practical ones, Ethics | 6 but they are also concerned with ethical reflection grounded from our personal experience. It refers to our freedom, our capacity to live according to what we consider as good, and what composes these considerations of ours. Our different historical and cultural backgrounds and different manners of upbringing means that we adhere to different forms of the norms which determines what is good or bad, what is right or wrong. This course will help us to explore how philosophers and thinkers have tried to solve the natural intuition of the good and how they understood the various paths of living a life according to the good. According to Pasco, et al., (2018), ethics originated from the Greek word ethos, which means custom, characteristic, or habitual way of doing things, or action that is properly derived from one’s character. Furthermore, they added that the Latin word mos or moris (plural mores), the origin of the adjective moral is equivalent to ethos. Therefore, by etymology, ethical and moral are synonymous. It is also connected with another Greek word ēthikos, which means characteristic, customary, or habitual. DEFINITION OF ETHICS FROM VARIOUS AUTHORS: For Lilie(1957), ethics is a normative science of the conduct of human beings living in societies. It judges conduct as right or wrong, good or bad. (p.2) For Mackenzie (1901), ethics is concerned about men’s habits and customs. It seeks the underlying principles behind these habitual acts, and investigates what constitutes the rightness or wrongness of these principles, the good or evil of these habits. (p.1) For Montemayor (1994), ethics is both a normative and a practical science that is based on reason. It studies human conduct and provides norms for its natural integrity and honesty. (p.8) For Pasco, et al., (2018), ethics for Filipino students is philosophy of human action that enables them to learn the art of living. (p.19) BRANCHES OF ETHICS As a branch of philosophy, ethics can be divided into Normative, Metaethics, and Applied ethics. The first branch, normative ethics, is concerned on the various theories that serves as the basis of moral rules that governs behavior. Its scope of inquiry includes asking the reasons behind as to why or why not a particular act should be committed. It is followed by metaethics which attempts to answer non-moral questions about morality. Its primary concern is the study of meanings and the various epistemological foundations of moral Ethics | 7 statements. Lastly, applied ethics is the field that deals with clear and specific moral questions. It is the branch of ethics that primarily deals with ethical situations and questions regarding abortion, cloning, and other moral issues. To better understand the interrelationship of the three, let us use a football analogy provided by Mark Dimock and Andrew Fisher. They compared an applied ethicist to that of a football player. When he kicks the ball, there is a possibility that he might score a goal. In this sense, an applied ethicist can score a goal by offering sound and rational arguments. If he is able to convince someone to change his moral perspectives, then it counts as a goal. The normative ethicist serves as the referee. He is concerned with setting up the rules to be followed in playing the game. The last character, the metaethicist, serves a role quite similar to a football commentator. Instead of playing the game themselves, they provide comments and judgments as the game is being played. For example, a commentator might point out the appropriateness or inappropriateness of a tactic being used by a player. Similarly, a metaethicist remarks on the appropriateness or inappropriateness of the ethical language being used in dealing with ethical situations. WHY STUDY ETHICS? The moral situation of today is very confusing and difficult to resolve. Our sense of morality, which stems from traditionally accepted and established ethical norms are being questioned, scrutinized, and undermined. The ethical problems that we encounter are very relevant because they affect our day to day lives. Because of this, there is an urgency to not only know what or how it is to think morally, but to actually live it. A truly moral life both requires a deep understanding of the basic principles that govern and guide human action, and living a life that is responsible for everyone’s welfare. Ethics attempts to find out the truth about the rightness or wrongness of human conduct. Although vast knowledge about ethics does not necessarily guarantee living a morally upright life, a student of ethics is more likely to be correct in his application of moral rules to a specific situation compared to a man who has knowledge about the particulars of the case but has no knowledge of ethics. In this light, we are challenged to be responsible not only for ourselves, but also for each of our fellowman and the entirety of the world. This is why human responsibility and respect for human dignity is at the forefront of studying ethics. The problems confronting humankind can be traced to our irresponsibility and neglect for the most basic human value, our dignity as a human person. Today, humans are being viewed not as a unique end in itself, but as a mere means to an end. The contemporary world has reduced the value of a human person to his functionality and usefulness. Hence, this challenges each one’s responsibility to recognize and respect the inherent and universal Ethics | 8 value of every human person, our dignity. Respecting the human person means to respect each one’s uniqueness. In this sense, ethics is a basic respect for every men’s right to profess and practice his faith, to pursue and achieve the good life, and to nourish himself to reach the fullness of his potentials. Everyone is responsible in ensuring that respect for human dignity and its inherent rights. Although people has the right to do activities that leads to their advancement, or the achievement of the goals of the society, they must act responsibly to ensure that it will not harm or endanger others, and will not violate the dignity of the human person. It is because without dignity, a human is less than human, it becomes less than what it truly is. Ethics helps us in considering what is worthy for us, as a human person. This means that to live rightly is not only about seeking our own happiness, but to live as a human person ought to live. MORAL STANDARDS VS. NON-MORAL STANDARDS MORAL STANDARD Moral standard is a code of what is right or wrong without reference to specific behaviors or beliefs (Lynn, 1997). It deals with matters that the person thinks have serious consequence and is based on good reason and impartial considerations overriding self-interest. Characteristics of Moral Standards 1. Moral standards involve behaviors that seriously affect other people’s well-being. (it can injure, or benefit them) 2. Moral standards take a more important consideration than other standards, including self-interest. 3. Moral standards do not depend on any external authority but in how the person perceives the reasonableness of the action. (no one is telling you it is right or wrong but you just believe the action is right or wrong) 4. Moral standards are believed to be universal. 5. Moral standards are based on objectivity. (not based on personal opinion) 6. Moral standards are associated with vocabulary that depicts emotion or feelings. (When you hurt someone you feel guilty.) Some examples of moral standards:  Don't kill.  Speak the truth.  Be careful with what you say and do to others.  Respect the property of others. Ethics | 9   Treat people in need or distress as we would want to be treated if our situation were reversed. NON MORAL STANDARDS Non-moral standards can be considered as relative standards by which something or someone is judged as either good or bad. The rules of non-moral standards vary because these rules depend on the guidelines agreed by a particular group. Etiquette It is a set of rules on how an individual should responsibly behave in the society. Table manners such as the proper use of utensils and the proper manner of eating are examples of etiquette. Policy It is a clear, simple statement of how an organization plans to handle its services, actions, or business. Policies are guiding rules to help with decision making. Example is the wearing of school uniform and ID. Law Law is a rule created and enforced by the government and its agencies to maintain order, resolve disputes, and protect a person’s liberty and rights. Commandment It is a rule that is to be strictly observed because it was said to be set by a divine entity such as those in the Ten Commandments (Stahl, 2009). MORAL DILEMMA In the academic and practical pursuit of ethics, encountering a moral dilemma is an inevitable reality. A moral dilemma is characteristically defined as a situation wherein a moral agent has two choose between two actions with two conflicting moral situations, none of which nullifies or overrides each other. A moral dilemma is a situation where: a. there are two or more actions that you can possibly do, b. there is a moral reason(s) for doing such actions, c. you cannot do all the possible actions presented to you. You only need to choose one. Jean Paul Sartre, a renowned existentialist, gave a famous example of a moral dilemma, whose resolution is quite obscure to ethicists. Sartre tells a story of a student whose brother died during the attack of the Germans in 1940. The student, who wants to avenge the death of his brother, wants to join the army in order to fight the German forces which he regards as evil. However, the student’s mother was living with him, and he is the Ethics | 10 only one who can support and console her in life since his brother is already dead. Sartre describes the student as torn between two kinds of moral obligations: personal devotion to his mother or contributing to the effort to defeat an evil aggressor. The former can be described as having limited scope but certain effect, while the latter as having a wider scope but uncertain effect. In Sartre’s example, none of the two cases clearly overrides each other. In this sense, it represents a genuine moral dilemma. A situation wherein one of the two choices obviously overrides the other is only called a conflict, not a moral dilemma. Three Levels of Moral Dilemma 1. Personal Moral Dilemma – is when your decision in a situation where there is moral conflict is the cause of either your own; that of another person; or a group of people’s potential harm. 2. Organizational dilemma – is when a member or members of the organization is in a situation where there is moral conflict, and the decision will potentially harm either some members of the group or organization. 3. Structural moral dilemma – is when a person or group of persons who holds high level positions in the society faces a morally conflicting situation wherein the entire social system is affected. FREEDOM Why only human beings can be ethical? According to St. Thomas Aquinas, the fundamental difference between animal and human ethics is that animals behave instinctively while human behaviour is rational. Rational Behavior It is a decision making process where the person acts in ways that best achieve his or her needs in accordance with his or her set preferences, priorities, and principles. The Human person as free being A human person is a being with inborn properties that he or she uses to direct his or her own development toward self-fulfillment. One of the inborn properties of the human person is freedom. Perspectives in Freedom 1. Gabriel Marcel Ethics | 11  Freedom is a gift from God. It is the ability to make significant choices, and not just arbitrary (not important) choices. Freedom is defined by Marcel in both a negative and positive sense. Negatively, freedom is, “The absence of whatever resembles an alienation from oneself,” and positively as when, “The motives of my action are within the limits of what I can legitimately consider as the structural traits of my self,” (TF, 232). Freedom, then, is always about the possibilities of the self, understood within the confines of relationships with others. As an existentialist, Marcel’s freedom is tied to the raw experiences of the body. However, the phenomenology of Marcelian freedom is characterized by his insistence that freedom is something to be experienced, and the self is fully free when it is submerged in the possibilities of the self and the needs of others. Although all humans have basic, autonomous freedom (Marcel thought of this as “capricious” freedom), in virtue of their embodiment and consciousness; only those persons who seek to experience being by freely engaging with other free beings can break out of the facticity of the body and into the fulfilment of being. The free act is significant because it contributes to defining the self, “By freedom I am given back to myself,” (VII vii). At first glance, Marcelian freedom is paradoxical: the more one enters into a self- centered project, the less legitimate it is to say that the act is free, whereas the more the self is engaged with other free individuals, the more the self is free. However, the phenomenological experience of freedom is less paradoxical when it is seen through the lens of the engagement of freedom. Ontologically, we rarely have experiences of the singular self; instead, our experiences are bound to those with whom we interact. Freedom based on the very participation that the free act seeks to affirm is the ground of the true experience of freedom towards which Marcel gravitates. https://iep.utm.edu/marcel/#:~:text=Freedom%20is%20defined%20by%20Marcel ,%E2%80%9D%20(TF%2C%20232). 2. Aristotle Freedom is Complementary to Reason – freedom without reason is not freedom at all. Freedom to achieve one purpose in life needs reason to fulfill it, in other words, self-direction. In Book III of the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle says that, unlike non- rational agents, we have the power to do or not to do, and much of what we do is voluntary, such that its origin is ‘in us’ and we are ‘aware of the particular circumstances of the action’. Furthermore, mature humans make choices after deliberating about different available means to our ends, drawing on rational principles of action. Choose consistently well (poorly), and a virtuous (vicious) character will form over time, and it is in our power to be either virtuous or vicious. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/freewill/ 3. Jean Paul Sartre Ethics | 12  Freedom is Absolute – we are so free that even “not choosing” is a choice. Freedom demands responsibility. Sartre’s concept of freedom is rooted in his existentialism. For Sartre, existence precedes essence, freedom is absolute, and existence is freedom. It has been made clear that Sartre does not believe that any essence or substance can be attributed to individuals prior to their existence. Individuals first of all exist, and there is no ‘human nature’ which exists outside or inside beings. Freedom is therefore limitless, but the physical limitations of the world are taken into consideration. Sartre writes “no limits to my freedom can be found except freedom itself or, if you prefer, that we are not free to cease being free” (1943, 439). However, individuals are born into the world or into a ‘situation’ – this is what he calls ‘facticity’. The facticity of the human condition involves the limits imposed on the individual by the world. For example, I can choose to jump off a cliff and fly, but I will probably crash because I do not have wings. This does not mean that I am not free – I am still free to choose to fly, but I will have to deal with the consequences of my actions. Sartre writes that freedom means “by oneself to determine oneself to wish. In other words success is not important to freedom” (1943, 483). It is important to note the difference between choice, wish and dream. Following Sartre’s example, it would be absurd to say that an imprisoned in individual is free to leave prison when he wishes to. It would be futile to say that the same individual can always dream of being liberated one day. But what is true and indicative of his freedom is that he can always choose to attempt an escape (Ibid). A critique of this point was made by McGill, who asserted that choice cannot be the only guiding principle of freedom (Natanson 1973). As I wrote in the second paragraph of this section, this indeed could be seen as potentially dangerous. However, as Natanson argues, “McGill desires non-ontological criteria of freedom; and with these Sartre is not concerned” (Ibid, 80). Another possible critique is that such an extreme form of freedom leads Sartre to return to a philosophy of essence (Desan 1960). This critique is understandable in that if freedom is the ‘stuff’ our being, then freedom is an essence. However, if one accept Sartre’s premise that existence is freedom, then one cannot conclude that freedom is an essence. Individuals are not free before they exist, and they do not exist before being free. https://www.e-ir.info/2013/01/23/jean-paul-sartre-existential-freedom-and-the- political/#:~:text=Freedom%20is%20therefore%20limitless%2C%20but,%5D%20(1943%2C%20 439). Why is ethics connected with human actions? In a simplified way, ethics is all about determining the morality of human conduct. Morality is the standard upon which we base the rightness or wrongness of a human action. Ethics seeks to investigate the motive, the circumstances and the very nature of the act itself in order to judge a human action as right or wrong. It is also important to note that the human acts that concerns ethics are those that are freely and willfully committed. In this sense, the scope of ethics only covers human actions insofar as they are free acts. Concluding Remarks Ethics | 13  Amid all the technological, technical, and moral advancements of today, ethics remains to be perennial as an academic subject and as a way of life. It seeks to provide a just and appropriate guide to navigate the moral ills, issues, and questions prevalent in the classroom setting, in the social media, in the families, and in the world. It provides questions which seeks to clarify our moral standpoints as well as answers that might satisfy our moral hunger. As a 21st century learner, a moral life should not only be confined in academic discussions and social media posts. Instead, a truly moral life is a life of integration between learned and lived values and moral principles. References: Printed Books Maboloc, C.R. (2010) Ethics and human dignity. Rex Book Store. Montemayor, F. (1994) Ethics: The philosophy of life. National Book Store. Pasco, M.O., & Rodriguez, A.M., & Suarez, V. (2018) Ethics. C & E Publishing. Ebooks Dimmock, M., Fisher, A. (2017) Ethics for a-level. (eBook edition) Open Book Publishers. Lillie, W. (1957) An introduction to ethics. (eBook edition). Methuen & Co. LTD. London. Mackenzie, J. (1901) Manual of ethics. (eBook edition). Hinds, Hayden & Eldredge, Inc. Seth, J. (1911) A study of ethical principles. (eBook edition). Charles Scribner Sons. Online Source Heimbach, D. (2015, May 11). How the Term “Ethics” Has Evolved. The Ethics & Religious Liberty Comission. Retrieved from: https://erlc.com/resource-library/articles/how-the-term-ethics-has-evolved/ Hernandez, J.G. Gabriel Marcel in Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy https://iep.utm.edu/marcel/#:~:text=Freedom%20is%20defined%20by%20Marcel,%E2%8 0%9D%20(TF%2C%20232). Manzi, Yvonne. (2013, January 23) Jean-Paul Sartre: Existential “Freedom” and the Political in E- International Relations https://www.e- ir.info/2013/01/23/jean-paul-sartre-existential-freedom-and-the- political/#:~:text=Freedom%20is%20therefore%20limitless%2C%20but,%5D%20(1943%2C% 20439) Moral Dilemmas. (2018) In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2018 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), Retrieved from: https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/moral-dilemmas/ Ethics | 14 O’Connor, Timothy and Christopher Franklin, "Free Will", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2022 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =