Intro to Human Body - Lecture Notes PDF

Chapter 1 – Introduction to the Human Body BIOL 111 – ROBERT GANT – BROOKDALE COMMUNITY COLLEGE COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 1 VED COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 2 VED Anatomy...

Chapter 1 – Introduction to the Human Body BIOL 111 – ROBERT GANT – BROOKDALE COMMUNITY COLLEGE COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 1 VED COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 2 VED Anatomy Physiology ◦ Study of the structure of body parts ◦ Study of the function (chemistry) of and their relationship to one another body parts; how they work to carry out life-sustaining activities COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 3 VED Subdivisions of anatomy: Gross (macroscopic anatomy) - study Microscopic anatomy -structures too of large, visible structures small to be seen by naked eye ◦ Regional anatomy - all structures in a ◦ Cytology – microscopic study of cells particular area of the body ◦ Histology - microscopic study of tissues ◦ System anatomy - just one system ◦ Developmental anatomy - studies (cardiovascular, nervous, muscular, anatomical and physiological etc.) development throughout life ◦ Surface anatomy - internal structures ◦ Embryology - study of developments as they relate to overlying skin (visible before birth muscle masses or veins seen on surface) To study anatomy, one must know anatomical terminology and be able to observe, manipulate, palpate, and auscultate COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 4 VED Subdivisions of physiology: ◦ Based on organ systems (e.g., renal or cardiovascular physiology) ◦ Often focuses on cellular and molecular levels of the body ◦ Looks at how the body’s abilities are dependent on chemical reactions in individual cells To study physiology, one must understand basic physical principles (e.g., electrical currents, pressure, and movement) as well as basic chemical principles COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 5 VED Structural Organization Human body is very organized, from the smallest chemical level to whole organism level: ◦ Chemical level: atoms, molecules, and organelles ◦ Cellular level: single cell ◦ Tissue level: groups of similar cells ◦ Organ level: contains two or more types of tissues ◦ Organ system level: organs that work closely together ◦ Organismal level: all organ systems combined to make the whole organism COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 6 VED Complementarity of Structure & Function Anatomy and physiology are inseparable ◦ Function always reflects structure ◦ What a structure can do depends on its specific form ◦ Known as the principle of complementarity of structure and function COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 7 VED Humans are multicellular, so to function, individual cells must be kept alive ◦ Organ systems are designed to service the cells ◦ All cells depend on organ systems to meet their survival needs There are 11 organ systems that work together to maintain life COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 8 VED COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 9 VED COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 10 VED COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 11 VED COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 12 VED COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 13 VED COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 14 VED Requirements for Life Necessary Life Functions Survival Needs Maintenance of life involves: Humans need several factors for ◦ Maintaining boundaries survival that must be in the ◦ Movement appropriate amounts; too much or ◦ Responsiveness too little can be harmful: ◦ Nutrients ◦ Digestion ◦ Oxygen ◦ Metabolism ◦ Water ◦ Excretion ◦ Normal body temperature ◦ Reproduction ◦ Appropriate atmospheric pressure ◦ Growth COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 15 VED Maintaining boundaries: Separation between internal and external environments must exist ◦ Plasma membranes separate cells ◦ Skin separates organism from environment COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 16 VED Movement: Muscular system allows movement ◦ Of body parts via skeletal muscles ◦ Of substances via cardiac muscle (blood) and smooth muscle (digestion, urination) ◦ Contractility refers to movement at the cellular level COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 17 VED Responsiveness: Ability to sense and respond to stimuli ◦ Withdrawal reflex prevents injury ◦ Control of breathing rate - must change in response to different activities COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 18 VED Digestion: Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs, followed by absorption of simple molecules into blood COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 19 VED Metabolism: All chemical reactions that occur in body cells ◦ Sum of all catabolism (breakdown of molecules) and anabolism (synthesis of molecules) COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 20 VED Excretion: Removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion ◦ Urea (from breakdown of proteins), carbon dioxide (from metabolism), feces (unabsorbed foods) COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 21 VED Reproduction: At the cellular level, reproduction involves division of cells for growth or repair At the organismal level, reproduction is the production of offspring COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 22 VED Growth: Increase in size of a body part or of organism COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 23 VED Survival Needs Nutrients Chemicals for energy and cell building ◦ Carbohydrates: major source of energy ◦ Proteins: needed for cell building and cell chemistry ◦ Fats: long-term energy storage ◦ Minerals and vitamins: involved in chemical reactions as well as for structural purposes COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 24 VED  Oxygen Essential for release of energy from foods ◦ The body can survive only a few minutes without oxygen COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 25 VED  Water Most abundant chemical in body; provides the watery environment needed for chemical reactions ◦ Also is fluid base for secretions and excretions COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 26 VED  Normal body temperature If body temp falls below or goes above 37°C, rates of chemical reactions are affected COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 27 VED  Appropriate atmospheric pressure Specific pressure of air is needed for adequate breathing and gas exchange in lungs COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 28 VED Homeostasis Homeostasis is the maintenance of Body must constantly be monitored relatively stable internal conditions and regulated to maintain despite continuous changes in homeostasis environment ◦ Nervous and endocrine systems, as ◦ A dynamic state of equilibrium, always well as other systems, play a major readjusting as needed role in maintaining homeostasis ◦ Maintained by contributions of all ◦ Variables are factors that can change organ systems (blood sugar, body temperature, blood volume, etc.) Homeostatic control of variables involves three components: receptor, control center, and effector COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 29 VED Homeostatic Controls Receptor (sensor) Effector ◦ Monitors environment ◦ Receives output from control center ◦ Responds to stimuli (things that cause ◦ Provides the means to respond changes in controlled variables) ◦ Response either reduces stimulus (negative feedback) or enhances Control center stimulus (positive feedback) ◦ Determines set point at which variable is maintained ◦ Receives input from receptor ◦ Determines appropriate response COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 30 VED Negative Feedback Most-used feedback mechanism in Example of negative feedback: body Regulation of blood glucose by insulin (an endocrine system mechanism) Response reduces or shuts off ◦ Receptors sense increased blood original stimulus glucose (blood sugar) ◦ Variable changes in opposite direction ◦ Pancreas (control center) secretes of initial change insulin into the blood ◦ Example - Regulation of body ◦ Insulin causes body cells (effectors) to temperature (a nervous system mechanism) absorb more glucose, which decreases blood glucose levels COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 31 VED COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 32 VED Body Temperature Regulation COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 33 VED Positive Feedback Response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus May exhibit a cascade or amplifying Oxytocin effect as feedback causes variable to continue in same direction as initial change Usually controls infrequent events that do not require continuous adjustment, for example: ◦ Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin ◦ Platelet plug formation and blood clotting COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 34 VED Platelet Plug Formation COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 35 VED Homeostatic Imbalance Disturbance of homeostasis ◦ Increases risk of disease ◦ Contributes to changes associated with aging ◦ Control systems become less efficient If negative feedback mechanisms become overwhelmed, destructive positive feedback mechanisms may take over ◦ Heart failure COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 36 VED Anatomical Position Body erect Feet slightly apart Palms facing forward with thumbs pointing away from body COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 37 VED Directional Terms describe one body structure in relation to another body structure ◦ Direction is always based on standard anatomical position ◦ Right and left refer to the body being viewed, not right and left of observer COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 38 VED COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 39 VED COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 40 VED COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 41 VED Regional Terms Two major divisions of body ◦ Axial ◦ Head, neck, and trunk ◦ Appendicular ◦ Limbs (legs and arms) Regional terms designate specific areas within body divisions COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 42 VED COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 43 VED Body Planes & Sections Body planes Sections ◦ Surfaces along which body or ◦ Cuts or sections made along a structures may be cut for body plane anatomical study ◦ Named after plane, so a sagittal ◦ Three most common planes: cut results in a sagittal section ◦ Sagittal plane ◦ Frontal (coronal) plane ◦ Transverse (horizontal) plane COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 44 VED Sagittal plane Frontal (coronal) plane ◦ Divides body vertically into right ◦ Divides body vertically into and left parts anterior and posterior parts (front ◦ Produces a sagittal section if cut and back) along this plane ◦ Produces a frontal or coronal ◦ Midsagittal (median) plane section ◦ Cut was made perfectly on Transverse (horizontal) plane midline ◦ Divides body horizontally (90° to ◦ Parasagittal plane vertical plane) into superior and ◦ Cut was off-centered, not on inferior parts (top and bottom) midline ◦ Produces a cross section Oblique section ◦ Result of cuts at angle other than 90° to vertical plane COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 45 VED  Body Planes COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 46 VED Body Cavities Body contains internal cavities that are closed to environment Cavities provide different degrees of protection to organs within them Two sets of cavities ◦ Dorsal body cavity ◦ Ventral body cavity COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 47 VED COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 48 VED Serous Membranes (Ventral Body Cavities) ◦ Serosa (also called serous membrane) ◦ Thin, double-layered membranes that cover surfaces in ventral body cavity ◦ Parietal serosa lines internal body cavity walls ◦ Visceral serosa covers internal organs (viscera) ◦ Double layers are separated by slit-like cavity filled with serous fluid ◦ Fluid secreted by both layers of membrane COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 49 VED Abdominopelvic Quadrants COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 50 VED Abdominopelvic Regions COPYRIGHT © 2019, 2016, 2013 PEARSON EDUCATION, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESER 51 VED