Sociology Terms PDF

cyberfeminism the application to and promotion of feminism online design patents patents that are granted when someone has invented a new and original design for a manufactured product digital divide the uneven access to technology around race, class, and geographic lines e-readiness the abil...

cyberfeminism the application to and promotion of feminism online design patents patents that are granted when someone has invented a new and original design for a manufactured product digital divide the uneven access to technology around race, class, and geographic lines e-readiness the ability to sort through, interpret, and process digital knowledge evolutionary model of technological change a breakthrough in one form of technology that leads to a number of variations, from which a prototype emerges, followed by a period of slight adjustments to the technology, interrupted by a breakthrough gatekeeping the sorting process by which thousands of possible messages are shaped into a mass media-appropriate form and reduced to a manageable amount knowledge gap the gap in information that builds as groups grow up without access to technology media all print, digital, and electronic means of communication media consolidation a process by which fewer and fewer owners control the majority of media outlets media globalization the worldwide integration of media through the cross-cultural exchange of ideas neo-Luddites those who see technology as a symbol of the coldness of modern life net neutrality the principle that all Internet data should be treated equally by internet service providers new media all interactive forms of information exchange oligopoly a situation in which a few firms dominate a marketplace panoptic surveillance a form of constant monitoring in which the observation posts are decentralized and the observed is never communicated with directly planned obsolescence the act of a technology company planning for a product to be obsolete or unable from the time it’s created plant patents patents that recognize the discovery of new plant types that can be asexually reproduced technological diffusion the spread of technology across borders technological globalization the cross-cultural development and exchange of technology technology the application of science to solve problems in daily life technophiles those who see technology as symbolizing the potential for a brighter future utility patents patents that are granted for the invention or discovery of any new and useful process, product, or machine absolute poverty deprivation so severe that it puts day-to-day survival in jeopardy. caste system a system in which people are born into a social standing that they will retain their entire lives class a group who shares a common social status based on factors like wealth, income, education, and occupation class system social standing based on social factors and individual accomplishments class traits the typical behaviors, customs, and norms that define each class (also called class markers) closed system a system of stratification that accommodates little change in social position. conspicuous consumption the act of buying and using products to make a statement about one’s social standing Davis-Moore thesis a thesis that argues some social stratification is a social necessity and is functional downward mobility a lowering of one’s social class endogamous marriages unions of people within the same social category exogamous unions unions of spouses from different social categories global stratification a comparison of the wealth, status, power, and economic stability of countries as a whole ideology the cultural belief system that justifies a society’s system of stratification income the money a person earns from work or investments intergenerational mobility a difference in social class between different generations of a family intragenerational mobility changes in a person's social mobility over the course of their lifetime. meritocracy an ideal system in which personal effort—or merit—determines social standing open system a system of stratification, based on achievement, that allows some movement and interaction between layers and classes. primogeniture a law stating that all property passes to the firstborn son relative poverty is not having the means to live the lifestyle of the average person in your country social mobility the ability to change positions within a social stratification system social stratification a socioeconomic system that divides society’s members into categories ranking from high to low, based on things like wealth, power, and prestige. Also called inequality. socioeconomic status (SES) an individual’s level of wealth, power, and prestige standard of living the level of wealth available to acquire material goods and comforts to maintain a particular socioeconomic lifestyle status consistency the consistency, or lack thereof, of an individual’s rank across social categories like wealth, power, and prestige structural mobility a societal change that enables a whole group of people to move up or down the class ladder upward mobility an increase—or upward shift—in social class wealth the value of money and assets a person has from, for example, inheritance or salary. capital flight the movement (flight) of capital from one nation to another, via jobs and resources chattel slavery a form of slavery in which one person owns another core nations dominant capitalist countries debt accumulation the buildup of external debt, wherein countries borrow money from other nations to fund their expansion or growth goals debt bondage the act of people pledging themselves as servants in exchange for money for passage, and are subsequently paid too little to regain their freedom deindustrialization the loss of industrial production, usually to peripheral and semi-peripheral nations where the costs are lower dependency theory a theory which states that global inequity is due to the exploitation of peripheral and semi- peripheral nations by core nations extreme poverty the state where one is barely able, or unable, to afford basic necessities first world a term from the Cold War era that is used to describe industrialized capitalist democracies fourth world a term that describes stigmatized minority groups who have no voice or representation on the world stage GINI coefficient a measure of income inequality within a country; can be used to compare one country’s inequality to another's global feminization of poverty a pattern that occurs when women bear a disproportionate percentage of the burden of poverty global inequality the concentration of resources in core nations and in the hands of a wealthy minority global stratification the unequal distribution of resources between countries gross national income (GNI) the income of a nation calculated based on goods and services produced, plus income earned by citizens and corporations headquartered in that country modernization theory a theory that low-income countries can improve their global economic standing by industrialization of infrastructure and a shift in cultural attitudes towards work peripheral nations nations on the fringes of the global economy, dominated by core nations, with very little industrialization relative poverty the state of poverty where one is unable to live the lifestyle of the average person in the country second world a term from the Cold War era that describes nations with moderate economies and standards of living semi-peripheral nations in-between nations, not powerful enough to dictate policy but acting as a major source of raw materials and an expanding middle class marketplace subjective poverty a state of poverty composed of many dimensions, subjectively present when one’s actual income does not meet one’s expectations third world a term from the Cold War era that refers to poor, unindustrialized countries underground economy an unregulated economy of labor and goods that operates outside of governance, regulatory systems, or human protections amalgamation the process by which a minority group and a majority group combine to form a new group antiracist a person who opposes racism and acts for racial justice assimilation the process by which a minority individual or group takes on the characteristics of the dominant culture colorism the belief that one type of skin tone is superior or inferior to another within a racial group culture of prejudice the theory that prejudice is embedded in our culture discrimination prejudiced action against a group of people dominant group a group of people who have more power in a society than any of the subordinate groups ethnicity shared culture, which may include heritage, language, religion, and more expulsion the act of a dominant group forcing a subordinate group to leave a certain area or even the country genocide the deliberate annihilation of a targeted (usually subordinate) group intersection theory theory that suggests we cannot separate the effects of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and other attributes minority group any group of people who are singled out from the others for differential and unequal treatment model minority the stereotype applied to a minority group that is seen as reaching higher educational, professional, and socioeconomic levels without protest against the majority establishment pluralism the ideal of the United States as a “salad bowl:” a mixture of different cultures where each culture retains its own identity and yet adds to the “flavor” of the whole prejudice biased thought based on flawed assumptions about a group of people racial profiling the use by law enforcement of race alone to determine whether to stop and detain someone racial steering the act of real estate agents directing prospective homeowners toward or away from certain neighborhoods based on their race racism a set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices that are used to justify the belief that one racial category is somehow superior or inferior to others redlining the practice of routinely refusing mortgages for households and business located in predominately minority communities scapegoat theory a theory that suggests that the dominant group will displace its unfocused aggression onto a subordinate group sedimentation of racial inequality the intergenerational impact of de facto and de jure racism that limits the abilities of Black people to accumulate wealth segregation the physical separation of two groups, particularly in residence, but also in workplace and social functions social construction of race the school of thought that race is not biologically identifiable stereotypes oversimplified ideas about groups of people subordinate group a group of people who have less power than the dominant group systemic racism racism embedded in social institutions; also referred to as institutional racism and structural racism White privilege the societal privilege that benefits White people, or those perceived to be White, over non- White people in some societies, including the United States biological determinism the belief that men and women behave differently due to inherent sex differences related to their biology doing gender the performance of tasks based upon the gender assigned to us by society and, in turn, ourselves DOMA Defense of Marriage Act, a 1996 U.S. law explicitly limiting the definition of “marriage” to a union between one man and one woman and allowing each individual state to recognize or deny same-sex marriages performed in other states double standard the concept that prohibits premarital sexual intercourse for women but allows it for men gender a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions of behaviors that are considered male or female gender dysphoria a condition listed in the DSM-5 in which people experience a deep sense of distress or discomfort due to incongruence between their sex assigned at birth and their gender identity. This condition replaces "gender identity disorder" gender identity a person’s deeply held internal perception of one's gender gender role society’s concept of how men and women should behave glass ceiling an invisible barrier that women encounter when trying to win jobs in the highest level of business heterosexism an ideology and a set of institutional practices that privilege straight people and heterosexuality over other sexual orientations homophobia an extreme or irrational aversion to gay, lesbian, bisexual, or all LGBTQ people, which often manifests as prejudice and bias intersex people born with sex characteristics (including genitals, gonads and chromosome patterns) that do not fit typical binary notions of male or female bodies. misogyny the hatred of or, aversion to, or prejudice against women pay gap the difference in earnings between men and women sex a term that denotes the presence of physical or physiological differences between males and females sexism the prejudiced belief that one sex should be valued over another sexual orientation a person’s physical, mental, emotional, and sexual attraction to a particular sex (male or female) sexuality a person’s capacity for sexual feelings social construction of sexuality socially created definitions about the cultural appropriateness of sex-linked behavior which shape how people see and experience sexuality transgender an adjective that describes individuals who identify with the behaviors and characteristics that are other than their biological sex activity theory a theory which suggests that for individuals to enjoy old age and feel satisfied, they must maintain activities and find a replacement for the statuses and associated roles they have left behind as they aged age stratification theory a theory which states that members of society are stratified by age, just as they are stratified by race, class, and gender ageism discrimination based on age baby Boomers people in the United States born between approximately 1946 and 1964 centenarians people 100 years old or older cohort a group of people who share a statistical or demographic trait continuity theory a theory which states that the elderly make specific choices to maintain consistency in internal (personality structure, beliefs) and external structures (relationships), remaining active and involved throughout their elder years dependency ratio the number of nonproductive citizens (young, disabled, elderly) to productive working citizens disengagement theory a theory which suggests that withdrawing from society and social relationships is a natural part of growing old elder abuse the act of a caretaker intentionally depriving an older person of care or harming the person in their charge exchange theory a theory which suggests that we experience an increased dependence as we age and must increasingly submit to the will of others, because we have fewer ways of compelling others to submit to us filial piety deference and respect to one’s parents and ancestors in all things geriatrics a medical specialty focusing on the elderly gerontocracy a type of social structure wherein the power is held by a society’s oldest members gerontology a field of science that seeks to understand the process of aging and the challenges encountered as seniors grow older gerotranscendence the idea that as people age, they transcend limited views of life they held in earlier times grief a psychological, emotional, and social response to the feelings of loss that accompanies death or a similar event hospice healthcare that treats terminally ill people by providing comfort during the dying process life course the period from birth to death, including a sequence of predictable life events life expectancy the number of years a newborn is expected to live modernization theory a theory which suggests that the primary cause of the elderly losing power and influence in society are the parallel forces of industrialization and modernization physician-assisted suicide the voluntary use of lethal medication provided by a medical doctor to end one’s life primary aging biological factors such as molecular and cellular changes secondary aging aging that occurs due to controllable factors like exercise and diet selective optimization with compensation theory a theory based on the idea that successful personal development throughout the life course and subsequent mastery of the challenges associated with everyday life are based on the components of selection, optimization, and compensation senescence the aging process, including biological, intellectual, emotional, social, and spiritual changes social gerontology a specialized field of gerontology that examines the social (and sociological) aspects of aging subculture of aging theory a theory that focuses on the shared community created by the elderly when they are excluded (due to age), voluntarily or involuntarily, from participating in other groups supercentenarians people 110 of age or older thanatology the systematic study of death and dying ambilineal a type of unilateral descent that follows either the father’s or the mother’s side exclusively bigamy the act of entering into marriage while still married to another person bilateral descent the tracing of kinship through both parents’ ancestral lines cohabitation the act of a couple sharing a residence while they are not married extended family a household that includes at least one parent and child as well as other relatives like grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins family socially recognized groups of individuals who may be joined by blood, marriage, or adoption and who form an emotional connection and an economic unit of society family life course a sociological model of family that sees the progression of events as fluid rather than as occurring in strict stages family life cycle a set of predictable steps and patterns families experience over time family of orientation the family into which one is born family of procreation a family that is formed through marriage intimate partner violence (IPV) violence that occurs between individuals who maintain a romantic or sexual relationship kinship a person’s traceable ancestry (by blood, marriage, and/or adoption) marriage a legally recognized contract between two or more people in a sexual relationship who have an expectation of permanence about their relationship matrilineal descent a type of unilateral descent that follows the mother’s side only matrilocal residence a system in which it is customary for a husband to live with the his wife’s family monogamy the act of being married to only one person at a time nuclear family two parents (traditionally a married husband and wife) and children living in the same household patrilineal descent a type of unilateral descent that follows the father’s line only patrilocal residence a system in which it is customary for the a wife to live with (or near) her husband’s family polygamy the state of being committed or married to more than one person at a time shaken-baby syndrome a group of medical symptoms such as brain swelling and retinal hemorrhage resulting from forcefully shaking or impacting an infant’s head unilateral descent the tracing of kinship through one parent only. ambilineal a type of unilateral descent that follows either the father’s or the mother’s side exclusively bigamy the act of entering into marriage while still married to another person bilateral descent the tracing of kinship through both parents’ ancestral lines cohabitation the act of a couple sharing a residence while they are not married extended family a household that includes at least one parent and child as well as other relatives like grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins family socially recognized groups of individuals who may be joined by blood, marriage, or adoption and who form an emotional connection and an economic unit of society family life course a sociological model of family that sees the progression of events as fluid rather than as occurring in strict stages family life cycle a set of predictable steps and patterns families experience over time family of orientation the family into which one is born family of procreation a family that is formed through marriage intimate partner violence (IPV) violence that occurs between individuals who maintain a romantic or sexual relationship kinship a person’s traceable ancestry (by blood, marriage, and/or adoption) marriage a legally recognized contract between two or more people in a sexual relationship who have an expectation of permanence about their relationship matrilineal descent a type of unilateral descent that follows the mother’s side only matrilocal residence a system in which it is customary for a husband to live with the his wife’s family monogamy the act of being married to only one person at a time nuclear family two parents (traditionally a married husband and wife) and children living in the same household patrilineal descent a type of unilateral descent that follows the father’s line only patrilocal residence a system in which it is customary for the a wife to live with (or near) her husband’s family polygamy the state of being committed or married to more than one person at a time shaken-baby syndrome a group of medical symptoms such as brain swelling and retinal hemorrhage resulting from forcefully shaking or impacting an infant’s head unilateral descent the tracing of kinship through one parent only.