Social Unit 2 Grade 8 PDF

2.1. Cultural Diversity and Changes Competencies: After studying this lesson, you will be able to: ► Explain the processes that lead to the development of culture. These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson Top four terms „ Culture „ Non-material culture 2.1.1 The Development of hum...

2.1. Cultural Diversity and Changes Competencies: After studying this lesson, you will be able to: ► Explain the processes that lead to the development of culture. These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson Top four terms „ Culture „ Non-material culture 2.1.1 The Development of human culture Startup questions What is culture? What are the processes that lead to the development of culture? Culture is defined as the symbols, language, religion, beliefs, norms, values, and artifacts that are part of any society. Cultural processes include all procedures through which people transform the world as it is into a world of their own. This includes all group specific norms and rules, values and ideas, information and knowledge in the process of communication. The development of culture has already been underway for thousands of years and will continue in the future. Societies began to form particular cultures, ideas, customs, and social behaviors that make one society distinct from another. Culture is developed from changes in socially transmitted beliefs, knowledge, customs, skills, attitudes and languages. Culture is affecting people's behavior that they acquire from other members of the society through teaching, imitation and other forms of social transmission. Cultural components can be classified as material and non material culture. This classification is expressed as follows: „ Material culture „ Artifacts Fetena.net : Ethiopian No\#1 Educational Resource GRADE 8 35 Social Studies Student Textbook 1. Material culture includes tools and technology, houses, factories, raw materials, clothing, eating utensils, and means of transportation. 2. Non-material culture also known as symbolic culture. It includes the values, beliefs, symbols, and language that are used to define a society. 2.1.2. Major Cultural elements Language, Religion and the Human race Competencies: after studying this lesson, you will be able to: ¾ Discuss language, religion and human race as a cultural elements ¾ Elaborate the cultural diversity of people in terms of language , religion and human races These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson Top five terms „ Cultural identity „ Human Race „ Language Cultural Diversity Startup question What is cultural diversity? Cultural diversity is also known as multiculturalism. This refers to a group of diverse individuals fromdifferent culturesorsocieties. Usually, culturaldiversitycanbeexpressed in terms of nationality, language, religion, race, gender, age and ethnicity. Ethiopia is the home of peoples that have cultural diversities who are living together in the same community. In this diversified cultural environment, its people retain, pass down, celebrate, and share their unique cultural ways of life, which are languages, art, traditions, and behaviors. „ Religion „ Multiculturalism Fetena.net : Ethiopian No\#1 Educational Resource GRADE 8 36 Social Studies Student Textbook Ethiopia is the home of peoples that have cultural diversities who are living together in the same community. In this diversified cultural environment, its people retain, pass down, celebrate, and share their unique cultural ways of life, which are languages, art, traditions, and behaviors. Ethiopia is a country with multi-cultural and multi-ethnic country. Ethiopians share a deep pride in the country's legacy and defend the sovereignty of their country. The country has its own unique culture that defines beauty with a variety of cultures. Ethiopians have many good things in common. For example, hospitality, respecting elders, standing together for the sovereignty of their country, tolerance, patriotism and celebrating cultures together. On the other hand, there are differences in religion, language, race, marriage ceremonies, funeral ceremonies, way of dancing, dressing style and greeting style. Some of these elements are discussed below. 1. Language Startup questions What are the major cultural elements? What is language? Why we use language? Language is defined as a system of communication which involves the use of speech, written characters, numerous symbols and gestures of nonverbal communication. Language helps us to share our ideas, thoughts, and feelings with others. Multilingual features of the Ethiopian people Most of the languages that are spoken in Ethiopia belong to Afro-asiatic language family. The Ethiopian languages are divided into four major language groups. These are Semitic, Cushitic, Omotic, and Nilo-Saharan. Let us see the four major language families: Fetena.net : Ethiopian No\#1 Educational Resource GRADE 8 37 Social Studies Student Textbook Semitic languages: are spoken in northern, central and eastern Ethiopia (mainly in Tigray, Amhara, Harar and northern part of the Southern Peoples regions).The Semitic languages include Amharic, Ge'ez, Guragigna,Tigrigna and others. Cushitic languages are mostly spoken in central, southern and eastern Ethiopia (mainly in Afar, Oromia and Somali regions). The Cushitic languages include Afarigna, Agewigna, Afan Oromo, Sidamigna, Somaligna and others. Omotic languages are predominantly spoken between the Lakes of southern Rift Valley and the Omo River. For instance, Basketto, GamoGofa, Welaytta and others. Nilo-Saharan languages are largely spoken in the western part of the country (mainly in Gambella and Benshangul regions). Example: Agnuak, Berta, Gumuz and others. 2. Religion Startup question What is religion? Religion is defined as a set of organized beliefs, practices, and systems that are related to the belief and worship of God or another super-natural being. It includes cultural beliefs, worldviews, holy books, prophecies, revelations, and morals that have spiritual meaning to members of the particular faith. Religion gives a source of comfort and guidance, basis for moral beliefs and behaviors, provides a sense of community and connection to tradition and health. Importance of religion a. Cultural Identity: Religion plays a crucial role for a person in giving a cultural identity. Each religion has cultural ceremonies, traditions, which are part of the tangible and intangible heritages. Fetena.net : Ethiopian No\#1 Educational Resource GRADE 8 38 Social Studies Student Textbook b. Values and Ethics: Religion helps in creating an ethical people and keeps the values of the society in day to day life. This helps in character building values of a person like love, empathy, respect, harmony and acts as to strengthen socialization. 3. Human race Human race is defined as a category of people that is socially constructed, shares certain distinctive physical characteristics such as skin color, facial features, and stature. Factors for cultural change i. Globalization:-it brings the growth of interconnectedness among different people and cultures. This lead to cultural change. ii. Environment: the way of using natural resources in the community threatens the cultural identities of indigenous people. iii. Technology: the advancement of technology leads to cultural change. For example, the invention of cars, computers, internet, etc. iv. Contact with other cultures: the contacts between one society with another society result in sharing of culture. This leads to cultural change. 2.1.3 Globalization and dynamics of social and cultural values. Competencies: after studying this lesson, you will be able to: ¾ Debate in the classroom on the effect of globalization as an agent cultural change. ¾ Respect humanity and indigenous knowledge. These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson Top five terms „ Cultural imperialism „ Technology „ Cultural invasion „ Indigenous culture „ Satellite TV Fetena.net : Ethiopian No\#1 Educational Resource GRADE 8 39 Social Studies Student Textbook Globalization Startup questions What do you understand by the word globalization? Identify the opportunities and challenges of globalization. Globalization refers to the increasing of interconnections among individuals across nations and their people. It refers to a remarkable exchange and sharing of information, culture, economic resources and technology which leads to strong interdependence among peoples of different nations of the world. The cultural dimension of globalization is seen in the presence of western entertainment and mass media. The influence of mass media especially entertainment channels leads to loss of local identities. Currently globalization is leading to cultural imperialism. In Ethiopia, currently domestic cultures are dominated by a host of additional cultural forms from abroad which are leading people with a confusing way of lifestyle options from which to choose. Different western based satellites Television (TV) programs which deliver most part of western cultural and entertainment products could negatively affect indigenous cultures of Ethiopia. Nowadays, individuals and groups are trying to annex their cultures with new global practices based on what they have seen from mass media worldwide. As a result, Ethiopian cultures and values are highly changing over time and becoming more dependent on western cultures. Over the years the youth have tried to be fashionable and exhibited clothing which is influenced to a large extent by foreign fashion in the wake of globalization. The extent of this influence affects the youth and the local fashion industry negatively. In addition, the youth have left the Ethiopian clothing style and they have been accustomed to western fashion trends. The European and the American influences have become so widespread and so invasive across almost every aspect such as; from education, religion, politics, social change and fashion with no exception. The youth should be proud of their cultures. Fetena.net : Ethiopian No\#1 Educational Resource GRADE 8 40 Social Studies Student Textbook Activity 2.1 A. Questions Based on Facts 1. Define the following terms a. Culture d. Language b. Material culture e. Religion c. Non material culture f. Humanrace 2. What is cultural diversity? 3. Explain the process of cultural development. B. Group discussion How the youth mitigate the effect of globalization on cultural change? Discuss in your groups and present your findings to your classmate. 2.2 Major Economic Activities Competencies: After studying this lesson, learners will be able to: ¾ Explain the different types of economic activities; ¾ Relate different economic activities with countries levels of development; ¾ Compare and contrast agriculture of the developed and developing countries; Focus Cultural imperialism is the practice of promoting and imposing a culture of a politically powerful nation over a less powerful society and alienating people from their indigenous culture. Fetena.net : Ethiopian No\#1 Educational Resource GRADE 8 41 Social Studies Student Textbook These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson Top five words Forestry Manufacturing Tourism Industry Mining More key words Agriculture Arable farming Fishery Pastoral farming Communication Transportation 2.2.1 Primary Economic Activities Primary economic activities focus directly on the extraction of resources from the environment. They involve the production of food stuffs and raw materials. The main types of primary activities include: \" Agriculture \" Forestry Let us look at the major primary economic activities of the world as follows. I. Agriculture Startup questions What is agriculture? Why is agriculture an important primary economic activity? Agriculture is the science and art of cultivation of the soil and the rearing of livestock for either local consumption or commercial purposes. It is one of the most important activities of human beings, because it provides them with the most basic necessity. It provides foodstuffs for the population and raw materials for industries. \" Fishing \" Mining Fetena.net : Ethiopian No\#1 Educational Resource GRADE 8 42 Social Studies Student Textbook Agriculture forms the basic livelihood for the majority of the Ethiopian people. Agricultural activities are broadly grouped into two. These are: crop production (arable farming) and animal husbandry (pastoral farming). II. Forestry Startup question What is forestry? Forestry is one of the primary economic activities. It involves the extraction of forest products for different purposes. Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands. Forestry is important in the provision of timber, fuel wood, biodiversity management, wildlife habitat, natural water quality management and recreation. It also plays a significant role in preserving forests as "sinks" for atmospheric carbon dioxide. III. Fishery Startup question What is fishing? Fishing is a primary economic activity concerned with the catching and harvesting of fish and other marine creatures. It is one of the oldest occupations of humankind. Ethiopia has a number of lakes, reservoirs and rivers which are rich in fish resources. However, fishing as an activity is not well developed. IV. Mining Startup question What is mining? Mining is the process of obtaining useful minerals from the earth's crust. It is closely linked to manufacturing which is a secondary type of activity. Some examples of substances that are mined include: coal, gold, or iron ore. Mining provides different types of minerals for construction; jewelry making, and raw materials for industries. Fetena.net : Ethiopian No\#1 Educational Resource GRADE 8 43 Social Studies Student Textbook 2.2.2 Secondary Economic Activities Startup questions What is secondary economic activity? What is manufacturing? Is there any difference between manufacturing and industry? Secondary economic activities pertain to adding value to already existing products by changing their form via processing, etc. It includes manufacturing, construction and power production. Manufacturing uses machines, tools and labor to make things for use or sale. The term may refer to a range of human activities, from handicraft to the use of high technology. However, it is most commonly applied to the creation of industrial products in which raw materials are transformed into finished goods on a large scale. 2.2.3 Tertiary Economic Activities Startup question What is a tertiary economic activity? Tertiarye conomicactivities are helpful for the development of the primary and secondary sectors. These activities, by themselves, do not produce goods, but they are an aid or a support for the production process. So, they are also known as support services. Transport, communication, trade, tourism, health, education and administration are important examples of tertiary activities. Let us briefly look at the following sectors:- Focus Manufacturing is the activity which turns raw materials into products by using labor, energy and equipment. But, industry refers to the place where manufacturing takes place. Manufacturing activities take place in factories. It is the activity of making goods. Fetena.net : Ethiopian No\#1 Educational Resource GRADE 8 44 Social Studies Student Textbook I. Transportation Startup questions What is transportation? What are the major modes of transport? Transportation is the movement of goods or people from one location to another. Nowadays, the types and quality of transportation have made much progress. This has enabled people to travel longer distances in shorter times than ever before. In addition, the flow of ideas, beliefs and innovations has become faster and wider. The rapid progress in transportation and other forms of communications have made places all over the earth functionally closer to each other. The major modes of transportation include: land transport, water transport and air transport. II. Communication Startup question What is communication? Communication is the sharing of information between different individuals. It includes the sharing of ideas, concepts, imaginations, behaviours and written content. Communication is simply defined as the transfer of information from one place to another. This transfer of information can be conducted in different ways. The major channels of communication include: mail, telephone, radio, television, fax, e-mail and internet. III. Tourism Startup question What is tourism? Tourism is the movement of the people from their normal place of residence to another place for leisure, business and other purposes. Tourism is a source of both job opportunities and income. It is known as a 'smokeless Fetena.net : Ethiopian No\#1 Educational Resource GRADE 8 45 Social Studies Student Textbook industry'. The main tourist attractions include natural and human-made features. Some of the reasons for tourism are: site-seeing, conferences, sport activities, health purposes, research and religious ceremonies. 2.2.4 The Effect of Different Economic Activities on Countries Economic Development Economic basis of developed and developing countries The developed countries have a large share of the manufacturing industries. In the industrialized countries, a large number of people are employed in secondary (manufacturing) activities and only a few workers in primary activities. On the other hand, in developing countries, the great majority of people still work in the agriculture sector because governments cannot invest more on secondary activities. Developing economies are basically agrarian in their character. In developing countries, the number of people engaged in agricultural sector is many but the production is little. Since developed countries are practicing modern methods, they can produce large amount using few number of manpower. That means people engaged in agricultural sector are very few, but production is in surplus. The share of agriculture in both employment and output is tiny in the developed countries. However, its share in output and employment in developing countries is quite substantial. In many developing countries, agriculture accounts for more than a quarter of their national output. Fetena.net : Ethiopian No\#1 Educational Resource GRADE 8 46 Social Studies Student Textbook Activity 2.2 A. Questions based on facts 1. Define the following terms: a. Agriculture c. Manufacturing e. Communication b. Forestry d. Transportation f. Tourism 2. Describe the main types of primary economic activities. 3. What is the difference between manufacturing and industry? 4. Compare and contrast agriculture in developed and developing countries. 5. Explain the three major types of economic activities. B. Group work Visit your locality and identify the economic activities that people are engaged. Then, present your findings to the class and invite the class for further discussion. 2.3 Trade, Market and Government Revenue as the Current National and Local Concern Competencies: After studying this lesson, learners will be able to: ► Describe the various flow patterns of goods, services and information; ► Analyze the contribution of trade to the Ethiopian economy ► Explain the major types of trade; ► Evaluate the contribution of different economic sectors to Ethiopian export trade; ► Explain that the interaction of supply and demand determines price; ► Use graphs to show the market equilibrium point; ► Explain what conditions must exist for "perfect competition" to occur; ► Discuss the trade-off between consumer right and market supply; Fetena.net : Ethiopian No\#1 Educational Resource GRADE 8 47 Social Studies Student Textbook These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson Top ten words Competitive market Producers Retail trade Consumers Entrepot trade Supply Demand Market equilibrium More key words Export trade External trade Internal trade Market Import trade Wholesale trade The concept and historical development of trade and market Trade Startup question What is trade? Trade is the process of buying, selling, or exchanging of commodities. The earliest form of trade was bartering, which is the exchange of one article for another of equal value. The emergence of trade is related to the unequal distribution of resources that are essential to satisfy human needs. Modern traders generally negotiate through a medium of exchange, such as money. As a result, buying can be separated from selling, or earning. The invention of money (and letter of credit, paper money and non-physical money) greatly simplified and promoted trade. Fetena.net : Ethiopian No\#1 Educational Resource GRADE 8 48 Social Studies Student Textbook Market Startup question What is a market? A market is a place where buyers and sellers can get together to facilitate the exchange of goods and services. The market may be physical like a retail outlet, where people meet face-to-face, or virtual like an online market, where there is no direct physical contact between buyers and sellers. Key benefits of trade Trade is critical to a nation's prosperity. Some of its benefits are described below: Bigger variety of products for the local population Higher level of competition with decreasing prices High level of technological progress and efficiency Low production costs Specialization and division of labor Interdependence and cooperation among trade partners Higher tax revenue Countries may refrain from serious conflicts due to economic interests Types of trade Startup question What are the types of trade? Trade is classified into two categories - Internal and External Trade. These types of trade are also further classified into various types. 1. Internal (domestic) trade is done within the same country, that is, within the same geographical boundary of a country. It is further classified into different categories as follows: Fetena.net : Ethiopian No\#1 Educational Resource GRADE 8 49 Social Studies Student Textbook a. Wholesale trade involves the purchase and selling of goods in large quantities. b. Retail trade is an action of selling goods directly to consumers by retailers. 2. External trade- is also known as international trade. As the term denotes this trade occurs between two different countries. External trade is further classified into three categories as follows: Import trade: refers to the purchasing of goods or services manufactured in foreign countries. Export trade: refers to the selling of domestic manufactured goods to another country. Entrepot trade: is all about the importing of foreign goods for re-exporting them to foreign consumers. Ethiopia's export trade Ethiopia's export trade is dominated by agricultural products. At present, the major export products of Ethiopia include coffee, livestock products (leather, live animals and meat), oil seeds and pulses, fruits, vegetables and flowers, textiles, natural gum, spices and mineral products. Market forces: supply and demand An exchange of a product is taken place when buyers and sellers can agree upon a price. Price is dependent on the interaction between demand and supply components of a market. Demand is the amount of a good that buyers are willing and able to purchase. Supply is the amount of a good that sellers are willing and able to sell. The point where the supply and demand curves intersect is called market equilibrium. where P= Price Q = Quantity where P= Price Q = Quantity P1= Equilibrium price Fetena.net : Ethiopian No\#1 Educational Resource GRADE 8 50 Social Studies Student Textbook Major actors of the market The major actors of the market are buyers (consumers) and sellers (producers). Buyers (consumers): are people who buy products for their personal or family use. They buy goods not for other purposes but for consumption. Sellers (producers): are people and organizations that convert raw materials to a more useful product for users. They supply for sale the products and services that are demanded by consumers. The idea of competitive market A competitive market is a market in which there are so many buyers and so many sellers that each has a negligible impact on the market price. Because buyers and sellers in perfectly competitive markets must accept the price the market determines. They are said to be price takers. The following conditions must exist for perfect competition to occur: Each buyer knows that there are several sellers from which to choose. Sellers know that each buyer purchases only a small amount of the total amount sold. The goods being offered for sale are exactly the same, so they have uniform price. The buyers and sellers are so numerous that no single buyer or seller has any influence over the market price. Buyers and sellers are free to enter or leave the market at any time they like. Focus Surplus (Excess supply): is a situation in which quantity supplied is greater than quantity demanded. Shortage (Excess demand): is a situation in which quantity demanded is greater than quantity supplied. Fetena.net : Ethiopian No\#1 Educational Resource GRADE 8 51 Social Studies Student Textbook Consumer right and supply problem In Ethiopia, there are supply problems which are caused by several factors. These problems highly affect consumers by depressing availability of goods from quantity, quality, time and price aspects. Some of the supply problems include: Malpractices by suppliers: like black marketing, hoarding, profiteering, unethical advertising, etc. Wrong weight and measures Problem of duplicate goods Health and safety hazards: example, selling products after the expiry date No proper return for money (price paid): due to inferior quality, less durability, adulteration, unsatisfactory packing, etc. Low level of market infrastructure Poor storage facilities Shortages due to irregular supply, etc. According to the Ethiopian Trade Practice and Consumers' Protection Authority Proclamation Number 685/2010, any consumer shall have the right to: 1. get sufficient and accurate information or explanation on the quality and type of goods and services he/she purchases. 2. selectively buy goods and services 3. not to be obliged to buy for the reasons that he has looked into quality or options of goods and services or he/she has made price bargains. 4. be received humbly and respectfully by any business person and to be protected from such acts of the business person as insult, threat, frustration and defamation. 5. submit his complaints to the Trade Practice and Consumers' Protection Authority for adjudication; and 6. be compensated for damages he suffers because of transactions in goods and services. Fetena.net : Ethiopian No\#1 Educational Resource GRADE 8 52 Social Studies Student Textbook Activity 2.3 A. Questions based on facts 1. Define the following terms: a. Consumers d. External trade g. Trade b. Demand e. Market h. Shortage c. Export trade f. Producers i. Supply 2. What are the key benefits of trade? 3. How internal trade differs from external trade? 4. What are Ethiopia's major export items? 5. What conditions must be fulfilled for the occurrence of perfect competition? 6. What are the major actors of the market? 7. What rights do people have as consumers in Ethiopia? 2.4. Government revenue and tax Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able to: X Explain the meaning of government revenue and tax. X List the main benefits of revenue and tax X Discuss the historical development of revenue and tax in Ethiopia These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson Top three terms „ Government revenue „ Tax „ economic stability „ Capital accumulation Fetena.net : Ethiopian No\#1 Educational Resource GRADE 8 53 Social Studies Student Textbook The Meaning and basic concept of government revenue and tax Startup questions What is government revenue? What is tax? Government revenue refers to all the income of the government from taxes and non-tax sources. These funds are used for government expenditure. Government revenues and spending are important parts of fiscal policy of the government. Let us see one source of government revenue as follows: Tax Tax is defined as a mandatory fee or financial charge levied by any government on an individual or an organization to collect revenue for public works providing facilities and infrastructure. Tax revenues finance government activities, that including public works and services as roads and schools, or programs like Social Security and Medicare. Taxation is a system of raising money to finance government expenditure. The benefits of the government revenue and tax Startup question What are the benefits of government revenue and tax? Benefits of the government revenue and tax In order to render various economic and social activities, government requires large amount of revenue. Government revenues have the following benefits:- Removal of inequalities in income and wealth:-The welfare state aims at the removal of inequalities in income and wealth. Ensuring economic stability:-Taxation affects the general level of consumption and production. It can be used as an effective tool for achieving economic stability. Fetena.net : Ethiopian No\#1 Educational Resource GRADE 8 54 Social Studies Student Textbook Reduction in regional imbalances:- the government can use tax measures to remove regional imbalances. Capital accumulation: Capital accumulation is essential for the promotion of industrial development. Creation of employment opportunities: More employment opportunities can be created by giving tax concessions or exemptions to small entrepreneurs. Beneficial diversion of resources: Resources utilized for the production of goods may be diverted in to the production of other essential goods. Encouragement of export: Nowadays export oriented industries are encouraged by way of providing various exemptions like100% relief from income tax, free trade zones etc. The Historical development of government revenue and tax The traditional taxation provides for taxes on crops, livestock and livestock products such as wool, butter and milk. The tax on wool was particularly levied on mountainous areas of the country. Hunting taxes were imposed on elephant hunters in the form of ivory taxes. In the Axumite kingdom there was a practice of traditional taxation. In the reign of King Zerayacob (1434 -1468), the first tax system was introduced. The first important reform carried out by Emperor Menelik II towards the end of the 19th century resulted in the establishment of a fixed tithe rather than the undefined and essentially arbitrary system of agriculture taxes. A. Taxes during Haileselassie regime (1942-1974) The elements of the tax system of this regime comprised personal income tax, business income tax, agricultural income tax, land tax, education tax, health tax, road tax, salt tax, tobacco tax, alcohol tax, cattle tax, stamp duties and custom duties. Fetena.net : Ethiopian No\#1 Educational Resource GRADE 8 55 Social Studies Student Textbook B. Taxes during the Derg regime (1975-1991) The political upheavals of 1975 brought about the abolition of the feudal tenure land system and the revoke of land taxes and the tithe. The health and education taxes were also cancelled and the remaining types of taxes were extensively amended and restructured. Additionally the government had two proclamations that were enacted to collect income tax. Income tax Proclamation number 77/1976 and proclamation number 152/1978 were aimed at changing the income tax structure levied on agricultural activities. Thus, the rate of rural land use fee was as follows:- Every farmer who was a member of agricultural producers cooperative paid birr 5 Any individual peasant who was not a member of an agricultural producers cooperative paid birr 10 Every state farm paid birr 2 per hectare under its possession. C. Taxes during the transitional government of Ethiopia (1991-1995) Income tax Personal income tax according to proclamation number 30/1992,the first birr 105 fron monthly personal income was exempted from the payment of income tax.Marginal tax rate was ranged from 10% to 50%. Proclamation number 30/1992 was amended by the income tax amendment proclamation number 107/1994. As aresalt of this birr 120 was exempted.