GED Social Studies Note - History, Economics, and Geography PDF

GED Social Studies (History) Colonial Era (1607-1776):  Jamestown Settlement (1607): The establishment of the first permanent English colony in North America (present day Virginia.)  Mayflower Compact (1620): The document signed by Pilgrims aboard the Mayflowe...

GED Social Studies (History) Colonial Era (1607-1776):  Jamestown Settlement (1607): The establishment of the first permanent English colony in North America (present day Virginia.)  Mayflower Compact (1620): The document signed by Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower, establishing self-government in Plymouth Colony.  Mercantilism: The economic policy where colonies provided raw materials to the mother country (England) and purchased finished goods in return.  French and Indian War (1754-1763): A conflict between Britain and France for control of North America, which contributed to tensions leading to the American Revolution.  Declaration of Independence (1776): The document declaring the American colonies' independence from British rule. American Revolution (1775-1783):  Battles of Lexington and Concord (1775): The first military engagements of the Revolutionary War.  Common Sense (1776): A pamphlet by Thomas Paine that argued for American independence from Britain.  Saratoga (1777): A key battle where the American victory led to French support in the war.  Treaty of Paris (1783): The treaty that officially ended the American Revolution and recognized the United States as an independent nation. Founding Documents (Late 1700s):  Articles of Confederation: Weak central (federal) government, Strong states  U.S. Constitution (1787): The drafting and ratification of the Constitution, establishing the framework for the U.S. government. Contains 7 articles. Stronger federal government.  Bill of Rights (1791): The first ten amendments to the Constitution, protecting individual rights and freedoms. Early Republic (Late 1700s to Early 1800s):   Washington's Presidency (1789-1797): George Washington's leadership as the first President of the United States.  Louisiana Purchase (1803): The acquisition of a vast territory from France, doubling the size of the U.S.  War of 1812 (1812-1815): A conflict with Britain, including the burning of the White House in 1814.  Texas Annexation refers to the process by which the Republic of Texas, an independent nation, became part of the United States. o Background: Texas was initially part of Mexico but gained its independence in 1836 after the Texas Revolution, forming the Republic of Texas. The Republic of Texas existed as an independent nation for nearly a decade. o Annexation to the United States: Texas sought annexation to the United States for several reasons, including financial difficulties and concerns about its security, as it shared a border with Mexico, with which it had ongoing disputes. In 1844, Texas and the U.S. signed an annexation treaty. However, the treaty faced opposition in the U.S. Senate. Instead of proceeding through a treaty, Congress passed a joint resolution for annexation in 1845. Texas accepted the offer, and on December 29, 1845, Texas officially became the 28th state of the United States. o Impact: The annexation of Texas was a contentious issue, as it fueled tensions over slavery. Texas was a slave-holding state, and its annexation was seen as an expansion of slavery into new territories. The annexation of Texas played a role in the outbreak of the Mexican-American War (1846- 1848) as Mexico disputed the Texas-Mexico border. Texas's annexation marked a significant expansion of U.S. territory and was a precursor to further territorial acquisitions, such as the Oregon Territory and the Southwest acquired after the Mexican-American War. Westward Expansion (Early to Mid-1800s):  Manifest Destiny: The belief that Americans were destined to expand westward, leading to territorial acquisitions and conflicts.  Oregon Trail: The Oregon Trail was a historic migration route that became popular during the mid-19th century. It was used by pioneers, settlers, and emigrants who traveled from the eastern United States to the western frontier, particularly to the Oregon Territory in the Pacific Northwest. The journey on the Oregon Trail was long and challenging, often taking several  months and covering thousands of miles. It played a significant role in the westward expansion of the United States.  Trail of Tears: The Trail of Tears refers to a tragic event that occurred during the 1830s, well before the popularity of the Oregon Trail. It was the forced relocation of Native American tribes, primarily the Cherokee Nation, from their ancestral lands in the southeastern United States to designated Indian Territory in present-day Oklahoma. This relocation was a result of the Indian Removal Act of 1830 and involved the forced displacement of thousands of Native Americans. Many suffered from disease, exposure, and hardships during the journey, resulting in a significant loss of life. Civil War and Reconstruction (1861-1877):  Civil War (1861-1865): The conflict between the Northern Union states and the Southern Confederate states over the issues of slavery. Northern states won leading to abolition of slavery.  Emancipation Proclamation (1863): President Lincoln's executive order freeing slaves in Confederate-held territories.  Reconstruction (1865-1877): The period of rebuilding and social change in the South after the Civil War. Industrialization and Progressive Era (Late 1800s to Early 1900s):  Gilded Age: A period of rapid industrialization, urbanization, and economic growth, accompanied by social and political issues.  Progressive Era: Reforms addressing issues like women's suffrage, labor rights, and regulation of big business, led by figures like Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson. World Wars and the Cold War (20th Century):  World War I (1917-1918): The U.S. entry into the war and its impact on international relations.  World War II (1941-1945): The U.S. role in the war, including the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.  World War I:  Reasons: (Militarism) European nations engaged in an arms race, building up large armies and navies. (Alliances) Complex web of alliances (Triple Entente and Triple Alliance) meant that conflicts could quickly escalate. (Nationalism)  Intense national pride and competition between nations. (Imperialism) Competition for overseas colonies. (Assassination) The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary by a Serbian nationalist in 1914 triggered the war.  Sides: (Allied Powers) France, Russia, United Kingdom, Italy, and later the United States. (Central Powers) Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire.  Important Documents: o Treaty of Versailles: Ended WWI, imposed heavy penalties on Germany. o Fourteen Points: Woodrow Wilson's proposal for a post-war peace settlement.  America's Impact: The United States entered the war in 1917, providing fresh troops and resources to the Allies. Helped tip the balance in favor of the Allies, leading to their victory.  Ending: The war ended on November 11, 1918, with an armistice.  Aftermath: o Treaty of Versailles: Imposed harsh penalties on Germany, sowing the seeds for World War II. o Dismantling of Empires: The war led to the collapse of empires, redrawing the map of Europe and the Middle East. o League of Nations: Created in an attempt to prevent future conflicts but largely ineffective.  World War II:  Reasons: Treaty of Versailles, (Expansionism) Aggressive expansion by Nazi Germany and imperial Japan. (Appeasement) European powers' reluctance to confront Hitler's aggression. (Invasion of Poland) Germany's invasion of Poland in 1939 triggered the war.  Sides: (Axis Powers) Germany, Japan, Italy. (Allied Powers) United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, France, China, and others.  Important Documents: o Atlantic Charter: Outlined Allied goals for a post-war world. o United Nations Charter: Established the United Nations after the war.  America's Impact: The United States entered the war after the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, providing massive resources and troops. Played a crucial role in defeating the Axis Powers.  Ending: WWII ended in 1945 after the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the surrender of Japan.  Aftermath: Nuremberg Trials: Held to prosecute Nazi war criminals.   Cold War: Tensions between the U.S. and Soviet Union emerged, defining global politics for decades.  Cold War (1947-1991): Tensions and competition between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, including the Cuban Missile Crisis. The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension and rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR) and their respective allies. It lasted roughly from the end of World War II in 1945 until the early 1990s when the USSR dissolved. Origins of the Cold War: o End of World War II: At the end of World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the two superpowers. They had different ideologies (capitalism vs. communism) and conflicting interests. o Yalta and Potsdam Conferences: Allied leaders, including Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin, met at the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences to discuss the post-war world. Disagreements arose over the future of Eastern Europe and Germany. Key Events During the Cold War: o Truman Doctrine: The Truman Doctrine was a U.S. foreign policy announced in 1947 by President Harry Truman. In simple terms, it aimed to contain the spread of communism. The United States provided economic and military assistance to countries threatened by communist expansion, particularly in Europe. This doctrine marked the start of the Cold War. o Marshall Plan: The Marshall Plan, officially known as the European Recovery Program, was an American initiative launched in 1948. It provided economic aid to help European nations rebuild after World War II. The plan aimed to prevent the economic instability that could lead to communism. It was named after U.S. Secretary of State George C. Marshall, who proposed it. o Berlin Blockade and Airlift: In 1948, the Soviet Union blockaded West Berlin to try to force the Western Allies out. In response, the Allies organized the Berlin Airlift, supplying the city by air for nearly a year. o NATO and the Warsaw Pact: In 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed by Western democracies as a collective defense against aggression. The USSR responded with the creation of the Warsaw Pact, uniting Eastern Bloc countries. o Korean War: The Korean War (1950-1953) began when North Korea, supported by the USSR and China, invaded South Korea, supported by the United Nations and the U.S. It ended in an armistice, not a peace treaty, leaving Korea divided.  o Cuban Missile Crisis: The Cuban Missile Crisis was a tense standoff in 1962 between the United States and the Soviet Union. It happened because the Soviet Union placed nuclear missiles in Cuba, which was very close to the U.S. This made the U.S. very worried about a nuclear war. After intense negotiations, the Soviets agreed to remove the missiles in exchange for the U.S. promising not to invade Cuba and removing its missiles from Turkey. It was a critical moment in the Cold War, and it ended without a war but with a heightened awareness of the danger of nuclear weapons. The Cold War's Global Impact: o Space Race: The United States and the USSR competed in the Space Race, culminating in the 1969 moon landing by American astronauts. o Proxy Wars: The Cold War saw numerous proxy wars where the U.S. and USSR supported opposing sides, such as the Vietnam War and conflicts in Afghanistan, Nicaragua, and Angola. o Arms Race: Both superpowers developed massive arsenals of nuclear weapons, leading to a dangerous arms race. The concept of mutually assured destruction (MAD) emerged. End of the Cold War: The Cold War began to thaw in the 1980s with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's reforms and efforts to improve relations with the West. The Berlin Wall fell in 1989, and the USSR dissolved in 1991, marking the end of the Cold War. o The fall of the Berlin Wall refers to the event in 1989 when the wall that divided East and West Berlin was physically opened, allowing people to move freely between the two sides. This event marked a significant turning point in the Cold War and the reunification of Germany. It symbolized the end of communist control in Eastern Europe and the eventual dissolution of the Soviet Union. The fall of the Berlin Wall is often seen as a symbol of the end of the Cold War era. Bipolar World to Unipolar World: With the collapse of the USSR, the world transitioned from a bipolar (two superpowers) to a unipolar (one superpower) system with the United States as the dominant global power. Ongoing Tensions: While the Cold War officially ended, some Cold War-era tensions and conflicts persist in international relations today, particularly in U.S.-Russia relations. Civil Rights Movement (1950s-1960s):  Brown v. Board of Education (1954): The Supreme Court decision that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional.   Civil Rights Act of 1964: Landmark legislation prohibiting discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. Contemporary Era (Late 20th Century to Present):  Vietnam War (1955-1975): U.S. involvement in the conflict.  Causes of the Vietnam War: o Colonial Legacy: Vietnam was a French colony, and there’s been desire for independence. o Cold War Context: The Vietnam War was part of the broader Cold War conflict. The U.S. supported South Vietnam, while the Soviet Union and China supported North Vietnam. o Divided Vietnam: After the Geneva Accords in 1954, Vietnam was temporarily divided into North (communist) and South (non-communist) Vietnam, with the intention of holding elections for reunification. These elections never occurred.  Key Events: o Gulf of Tonkin Incident: In 1964, the U.S. claimed that North Vietnamese boats attacked American naval vessels in the Gulf of Tonkin. This event led to increased U.S. involvement. o U.S. Troop Escalation: The U.S. gradually escalated its military involvement, sending troops and conducting airstrikes in North Vietnam. o Tet Offensive: In 1968, North Vietnamese forces launched a major offensive, attacking South Vietnamese cities. Though the offensive was eventually repelled, it had a significant impact on American public opinion.  Anti-War Movement: o Protests and Demonstrations: The Vietnam War sparked widespread protests and demonstrations in the U.S. Many Americans opposed the war on moral, political, and social grounds. o Draft Resistance: Opposition to the military draft led to draft dodging and resistance among young Americans.  End of the War: o Paris Peace Accords: In 1973, the U.S. and North Vietnam signed the Paris Peace Accords, which led to the withdrawal of U.S. troops. o Fall of Saigon: In 1975, North Vietnamese forces captured Saigon, leading to the reunification of Vietnam under communist control.  Consequences: o Human Toll: The Vietnam War resulted in a significant loss of life, including both military and civilian casualties.  o Impact on Vietnam: The war had a profound impact on Vietnam, leading to social, economic, and environmental challenges. o Legacy in the U.S.: The Vietnam War left a lasting legacy in the United States, including a divided society and a more critical approach to U.S. military interventions. o Cold War Implications: The war had broader implications for Cold War dynamics, including the spread of communism in Southeast Asia. End of the Cold War (1991): The collapse of the Soviet Union. 9/11 and the War on Terror (2001-present): The terrorist attacks and the U.S. response, including wars in Afghanistan and Iraq.  The 9/11 attacks, on September 11, 2001, were a series of terrorist acts by the extremist group al-Qaeda. They hijacked planes and crashed them into the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. These attacks killed thousands of innocent people, caused significant damage, and led to the United States launching the War on Terror, including the invasion of Afghanistan. The 9/11 attacks had a profound impact on U.S. foreign policy, security measures, and the world's perception of terrorism.  War on Terror Causes: o 9/11 Attacks: kills nearly 3,000 people. o Key Events: Invasion of Afghanistan (2001): In response to the 9/11 attacks and with the goal of dismantling al-Qaeda, the U.S. led a military coalition to invade Afghanistan. The Taliban regime, which had harbored al-Qaeda, was overthrown. o Iraq War (2003-2011): The U.S. invaded Iraq, alleging the presence of weapons of mass destruction and links to terrorism. This conflict became a significant part of the War on Terror. o Global Counterterrorism Operations: The U.S. and its allies conducted counterterrorism operations worldwide to disrupt and dismantle terrorist networks affiliated with al-Qaeda. Chinese Civil War: Background:  The Chinese Civil War was a conflict fought between the Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang or KMT), led by Chiang Kai-shek, and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), led by Mao Zedong.   The war took place from 1927 to 1950, with a temporary hiatus during World War II when both sides focused on resisting Japanese invasion. Causes:  The civil war was rooted in political, ideological, and socio-economic differences between the KMT and the CCP.  The KMT aimed to establish a centralized, capitalist, and authoritarian government, while the CCP sought to create a communist state with land redistribution and social equality. Early Phases:  The conflict began in the late 1920s when Chiang Kai-shek launched a campaign to eliminate communist influence, resulting in the First Chinese Civil War (1927- 1937).  The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) interrupted the civil war as both sides temporarily united to fight the common enemy, Japan. Post-World War II Phase:  After World War II, tensions resurfaced, leading to the resumption of the civil war in 1945.  The KMT, despite receiving aid from the United States, faced corruption, inflation, and declining public support. Communist Victory:  The CCP gained significant support from peasants and rural areas through land reforms and social programs.  By 1949, the CCP had gained control over most of mainland China, while the KMT retreated to Taiwan, where they established the Republic of China. Outcome:  On October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong declared the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in Beijing, marking the communist victory.  The KMT government continued to exist on Taiwan, and the Taiwan Strait became a major point of tension in Sino-American relations. Impact:  The Chinese Civil War resulted in significant social, political, and economic changes in China.   The PRC embarked on a path of communist transformation, leading to major reforms, including collectivization of agriculture and industrialization.  The war also had a profound impact on U.S.-China relations, as the U.S. continued to support the KMT on Taiwan. Legacy:  The Chinese Civil War laid the foundation for modern China and shaped its political structure.  The CCP has remained the ruling party in China since its victory, and Taiwan has developed into a separate, democratic entity with its own government. Kurdish people:  Ethnic Background: Kurds are an ethnic group primarily concentrated in a region known as Kurdistan, which spans parts of several countries in the Middle East, including Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Syria. They are often considered the largest ethnic group in the world without their own sovereign state.  Language: The Kurdish people speak the Kurdish language, which belongs to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. There are several dialects of Kurdish, with the Sorani and Kurmanji dialects being the most widely spoken.  Culture and Identity: Kurdish culture is rich and diverse, with a long history of art, music, dance, and literature. Kurdish identity is often defined by a shared sense of history, language, and culture. Many Kurds have a strong desire for self- determination and the establishment of an independent Kurdish state.  History of Struggles: The Kurdish people have faced a history of oppression and marginalization in the countries where they reside. They have often sought greater autonomy or independence, leading to conflicts and struggles, such as the Kurdish insurgency in Turkey and the fight against ISIS in Iraq and Syria.  Religion: Kurds practice various religions, including Islam (Sunni and Shia), Yazidism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism. Religious diversity is a hallmark of Kurdish society.  Political Landscape: The Kurdish people are politically divided, with different factions pursuing various goals. The Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) in Iraq is one of the most prominent Kurdish political entities. The Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) in Turkey, while considered a terrorist organization by some, is a key player in the Kurdish struggle for rights and autonomy.  Challenges: Kurds continue to face challenges related to political repression, displacement, and conflicts in the region. Achieving a unified Kurdish state remains a complex and contentious issue.  Diaspora: Due to historical and political factors, Kurdish communities exist in many parts of the world, including Europe and North America. These diaspora communities often play important roles in advocating for Kurdish rights. Korean War: Background:  The Korean War was a conflict that took place from 1950 to 1953 on the Korean Peninsula.  It began when North Korea, backed by the Soviet Union and China, invaded South Korea, which was supported by the United States and other Western nations.  The war was part of the broader Cold War struggle between the United States and the Soviet Union, with Korea divided along the 38th parallel into North and South after World War II. Key Events:  The war started on June 25, 1950, when North Korean forces crossed the 38th parallel and rapidly advanced into South Korea.  The United Nations (UN) intervened to support South Korea, with the U.S. providing the bulk of the UN forces.  General Douglas MacArthur led UN forces in a daring amphibious landing at Inchon, which helped push North Korean forces back beyond the 38th parallel.  China entered the war in late 1950 to aid North Korea, dramatically changing the course of the conflict.  The war turned into a stalemate, with intense fighting occurring along the 38th parallel.  Armistice talks began in 1951, but it took two years of negotiations before an armistice agreement was reached in 1953.  The Korean Peninsula remained divided along roughly the same line as before the war, with the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) serving as a buffer. Consequences:  The Korean War had a devastating impact on both North and South Korea, resulting in significant loss of life and infrastructure damage.  It left a legacy of bitter division, with North and South Korea remaining separate states to this day.  The armistice agreement halted active combat but did not lead to a formal peace treaty, meaning the war technically never ended.  The United States maintained a military presence in South Korea after the war, and South Korea experienced rapid economic development and growth. Global Implications:  The Korean War was one of the first major conflicts of the Cold War and had broader implications for the global balance of power.  It solidified the division between communist and non-communist blocs in Asia.  The conflict demonstrated the willingness of major powers like the U.S., Soviet Union, and China to become involved in regional conflicts during the Cold War. Nazi Holocaust: Background:  The Holocaust was the systematic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of approximately six million Jews by the Nazi regime and its collaborators during World War II.  It is considered one of the most horrific genocides in human history. Key Phases: 1. Persecution and Discrimination:  The Holocaust began with the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party in Germany in the early 1930s.  Jews and other minority groups were subjected to discrimination, anti- Semitic laws, and violence.  The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 stripped Jews of their German citizenship and legal rights. 2. Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass):  In November 1938, a coordinated attack on Jews took place in Germany and Austria, resulting in widespread destruction of Jewish businesses, synagogues, and homes. 3. Concentration Camps:  The Nazis established concentration camps where they imprisoned and subjected people to forced labor, starvation, and brutal conditions.  Initially, these camps were used for political opponents, but they later expanded to include Jews, Romani people, homosexuals, and others. 4. Extermination Camps:  As Nazi expansion continued, extermination camps were created with the sole purpose of mass murder.  Camps like Auschwitz, Sobibor, and Treblinka used gas chambers to kill large numbers of people. 5. Final Solution:  The "Final Solution to the Jewish Question" was a Nazi plan to systematically exterminate the Jewish population of Europe.  It was implemented during the Wannsee Conference in 1942.  6. Resistance and Liberation:  Despite overwhelming odds, there were instances of Jewish resistance within ghettos and camps.  Allied forces liberated concentration and extermination camps in 1944-1945, revealing the extent of the horror. Consequences:  The Holocaust resulted in the deaths of approximately six million Jews, along with millions of other innocent people.  The survivors faced physical and psychological trauma.  The Nuremberg Trials held Nazi leaders accountable for their crimes.  The Holocaust had a profound impact on Jewish identity, diaspora communities, and the world's understanding of genocide. Legacy:  The Holocaust is remembered through memorials, museums, and educational programs worldwide.  It serves as a stark reminder of the dangers of unchecked hatred, discrimination, and bigotry.  The phrase "Never Again" became a rallying cry for the prevention of future genocides. Circumstances that shape the two-term presidential limit 1. Founding Principles: The framers of the United States Constitution were wary of concentrated power and sought to prevent the emergence of a monarchy or dictatorship. They designed a system of government with a balance of powers, and limiting the presidency to two terms was seen as a way to prevent one individual from becoming too powerful. 2. George Washington's Example: George Washington, the first President of the United States, voluntarily stepped down after serving two terms in office. His decision to relinquish power and retire to his Mount Vernon estate set a precedent for future presidents. 3. 22nd Amendment: The two-term limit was formalized in the 22nd Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which was ratified in 1951. This amendment was a response to Franklin D. Roosevelt's four-term presidency during a time of crisis (the Great Depression and World War II). It was seen as a way to prevent presidents from accumulating too much power and to ensure regular transitions of leadership. 4. Public Opinion: Public opinion and the fear of a "permanent presidency" have influenced discussions about presidential term limits. Overwhelming public support for term limits played a significant role in the passage of the 22nd Amendment. 5. Political Tradition: The two-term limit has become a deeply ingrained political tradition in the United States. Most presidents, following Washington's example, have voluntarily adhered to this norm. While they legally could seek a third term after a break, they have chosen not to. 6. Checks and Balances: The concept of checks and balances in American government is another factor shaping the two-term limit. It ensures that no one branch or individual holds unchecked power for an extended period. 7. Evolving Presidency: The presidency has evolved over time, with presidents today facing complex global challenges. Some argue that term limits allow for fresh leadership and new ideas to address these challenges. 8. Opponents of Term Limits: On the other hand, some argue that term limits can be counterproductive, as they may force out effective presidents prematurely. They suggest that the electoral process should determine whether a president continues in office. 9. State and Local Offices: Term limits also exist for various state and local offices across the United States. These limits are influenced by similar concerns about power concentration and the desire for regular turnover in office. Society changes after reconstruction 1. End of Reconstruction: The formal end of Reconstruction occurred in 1877 when federal troops were withdrawn from the South. This marked the beginning of a new phase in American history. 2. Rise of Jim Crow Laws: As federal oversight receded, Southern states implemented Jim Crow laws, which enforced racial segregation and discrimination. This legalized segregation persisted for decades. 3. African American Disenfranchisement: Southern states implemented various measures, such as poll taxes, literacy tests, and grandfather clauses, to disenfranchise African American voters. This severely limited their political participation. 4. Sharecropping and Tenant Farming: Many African Americans and poor whites became trapped in economic systems like sharecropping and tenant farming. These systems often resulted in cycles of debt and poverty. 5. Industrialization: The United States experienced significant industrialization during this period. Factories, railroads, and new technologies transformed the economy and led to urbanization. 6. Urbanization: Cities grew rapidly as people moved from rural areas to seek jobs in factories and industries. This shift from agrarian to urban life brought about major changes in lifestyle and living conditions. 7. Immigration: Immigration to the United States surged during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Immigrants from Europe and Asia brought diverse cultures and contributed to the nation's workforce. 8. Labor Movements: The growth of industrialization led to the rise of labor movements. Workers organized unions to fight for better wages, working conditions, and labor rights. 9. Women's Suffrage: The women's suffrage movement gained momentum during this period. In 1920, the 19th Amendment was ratified, granting women the right to vote. 10. Expansionism: The United States pursued an expansionist foreign policy, acquiring territories like Alaska, Hawaii, and the Philippines. This marked the country's emergence as a global power. 11. Native American Displacement: Native American tribes continued to be displaced from their ancestral lands as the U.S. government pursued westward expansion. 12. Technological Advances: Innovations such as the telephone, telegraph, and electric light bulb transformed daily life and communication. 13. Cultural Changes: Changes in society were reflected in literature, art, and culture. This period gave rise to the Gilded Age, characterized by both opulence and social issues. 14. Social Inequalities: Despite industrial and technological progress, societal inequalities persisted. A growing divide between the wealthy and the working class became increasingly apparent. 15. Prohibition: The temperance movement culminated in the prohibition of alcohol with the 18th Amendment in 1919. Prohibition led to the rise of illegal speakeasies and organized crime. 16. World War I: The United States entered World War I in 1917, which had profound effects on society, including changes in industry, women's roles, and the economy. Basic Economic Concepts:  Economics is the study of how societies allocate their limited resources to meet their wants and needs. Microeconomics is the study of individual markets. The study of the overall workings of a national economy, and of its relationship to international markets, is called macroeconomics.  Resources include land, labor, capital (physical and human), and entrepreneurship.  Scarcity is the fundamental economic problem where unlimited wants meet limited resources. a) Deficit b) Competition c) Monopoly d) Investment either by purchasing stock or bonds e) Internal Revenue Service / U.S Federal Reserve 2. Supply and Demand:  Supply refers to the quantity of a good or service that producers are willing and able to sell at various prices. (how much is available)  Demand refers to the quantity of a good or service that consumers are willing and able to buy at various prices. (how much is wanted)  Equilibrium is the point where supply and demand intersect, determining the market price and quantity. 3. Types of Economies:  Market Economy: Also known as capitalism, it is characterized by private ownership of resources and businesses. Prices are determined by supply and demand in a free market. Examples include the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom.  Command Economy: Also known as socialism or communism, the government owns and controls the means of production. Central planning determines what goods and services are produced. Examples include the former Soviet Union and North Korea.  Mixed Economy: A combination of market and command economies. 4. Economic Systems:  Capitalism: Private ownership of resources, profit motive, competition, and minimal government intervention.  Socialism: Government ownership of key industries, wealth redistribution, and more government control.  Communism: Collective ownership, no private property, and central planning by the state. 5. Economic Indicators:  Gross Domestic Product (GDP): Measures the total economic output of a country.  Unemployment Rate: The percentage of the labor force that is unemployed and actively seeking employment.  Inflation Rate: The rate at which the general level of prices for goods and services rises, causing purchasing power to fall. 6. Fiscal and Monetary Policy:  Fiscal Policy: Government decisions on taxes and spending to influence the economy.  Monetary Policy: Control of the money supply and interest rates by a central bank to stabilize the economy. 7. International Trade:  Comparative Advantage: When a country can produce a good or service more efficiently than others, it specializes in that area.  Trade Barriers: Tariffs, quotas, and trade restrictions can affect international trade.  Export  Import  Embargo 8. Economic Growth and Development:  Economic development focuses on improving living standards, reducing poverty, and providing opportunities for a better life. 9. Economic Cycles:  Business cycles include periods of economic expansion (boom) and contraction (recession).  Economic downturns can lead to unemployment and decreased economic activity. 10. Economic Sectors: - Primary Sector: Extracts raw materials (e.g., agriculture, mining). - Secondary Sector: Processes raw materials (e.g., manufacturing). - Tertiary Sector: Provides services (e.g., healthcare, education). 11. Government Expenses:  Federal Government: Funds the military, government worker salaries, education, healthcare programs (Medicare, Medicaid), Social Security, regulates commerce, maintains national parks, and more.  State Governments: Expenses include state police, infrastructure maintenance (bridges, highways), and state-specific programs.  Local Governments: Cover costs like public schools, garbage collection, libraries, and municipal parks.  State Taxes: Vary by state; some impose income taxes, while others may not tax certain items like clothing (e.g., Pennsylvania). Early Economic Landscape:  In the early days, the federal government had limited involvement in the economy.  One major controversy was the creation of the Bank of the United States in 1791, pushed by Alexander Hamilton but opposed by figures like Thomas Jefferson.  Questions arose about the government's right to intervene in economic affairs. Westward Expansion and Economic Growth:  Westward expansion in the 1800s was a pivotal economic event.   Settlers moved into the Midwest and Great Plains, driven by rising agricultural prices and improved methods of getting farm products to global markets.  The discovery of gold in California (California Gold Rush) in 1849 accelerated westward migration and brought newfound wealth.  The latter half of the 19th century saw extensive railroad construction and the rapid growth of industries based on steel and coal. Government's Growing Role:  Towards the late 19th century, government began taking a more active role in the economy in response to demands from various groups.  The Interstate Commerce Act (1887) expanded Congress's regulatory power, particularly concerning interstate trade and railroads.  The Sherman Antitrust Act (1890) provided Congress with the authority to limit the formation of business monopolies.  The Federal Reserve Act (1913) established the modern banking system, including the Federal Reserve System and regional Federal Reserve Banks. Response to Great Depression:  The Great Depression in the 1930s prompted President Franklin Roosevelt and Congress to implement a comprehensive set of economic measures known as the New Deal.  These measures significantly expanded the federal government's role in domestic affairs.  Programs were introduced to provide essentials like food, shelter, and financial assistance to those in economic distress.  Large-scale infrastructure projects provided jobs for many.  Social Security, a cornerstone of the New Deal, still offers a guaranteed income to millions of Americans. Post-World War II Economic Boom:  World War II's end marked the conclusion of the Great Depression as the demand for weapons, ships, and airplanes generated jobs and income.  Post-war years saw a remarkable economic boom that lasted a quarter-century.  The United States solidified its status as the world's preeminent economic superpower during this era. Geography 1. Climate: The typical weather conditions in a specific region over a long period. 2. Ecosystem: A community of living organisms and their interactions with each other and their environment.  3. Precipitation: Any form of water (like rain, snow, or sleet) that falls from the sky to the ground. 4. Tropical, Desert, Temperate: Different types of climates, with tropical being hot and humid, desert being dry and arid, and temperate being moderate and mild. 5. Topography: The physical features of an area, like its hills, valleys, and landforms. 6. Sustainability: Using resources in a way that meets current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. 7. Green Movement: A collective effort to promote environmental conservation and sustainability. 8. Immigrate, Emigrate, Diaspora: Immigrate means to move into a new country, emigrate means to leave one's own country, and diaspora refers to the dispersion of a group of people from their original homeland. 9. Assimilate: When individuals or groups adopt the customs, culture, and norms of a new society. 10. Latitude, Longitude, Equator: Latitude are horizontal lines that measure distance north or south of the equator. Longitudes are vertical lines that measure east or west of the meridian in Greenwich, England. The equator is an imaginary line that circles the Earth horizontally. Latitude and longitude are measured in degrees (°) and minutes ('). The equator is considered to be 0° latitude. The north and south pole are located at 90° north and 90° south latitude, respectively. The prime meridian is considered to be 0° longitude. History Early Civilizations   Civilizations form when people have a temperate climate, food, and water.  Civilizations started around 3500 BCE in the Fertile Crescent.  The Bronze Age brought stronger tools.  Mesopotamia (Iraq) had the first writing, religion, math, the wheel, and literature.  Sumerians made the first city-states.  Babylonians were great at astronomy and math, using a base 60 system.  Egyptians built the Great Pyramids with impressive skills.  The Indus Valley Civilization in Pakistan is less understood due to unreadable writings. Early China:  Ancient civilization in East Asia with a rich history.  Confucius  Dynasties such as the Qin (free market economy, the invention of paper, a universal law code, and a meritbased bureaucracy, the Silk Road) and Han played crucial roles Early India:  Ancient civilization in South Asia.  Birthplace of major religions like Hinduism and Buddhism. Classical Greece:  Birthplace of democracy, philosophy, and literature.  Renowned philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.  Significant city-states, including Athens and Sparta, contributed to its legacy. Rome:  Powerful ancient civilization.  Both patricians (aristocrats) and plebeians (commoners) were represented in the Senate.  Christianity came into existence under the Roman Empire as a new sect of Judaism.  Known for its laws, engineering (aqueducts, roads), and gladiators.  Julius Caesar, Augustus, and the Roman Empire. The Great Migration and the Middle Ages:  Movement of peoples in Europe.  Medieval period with knights, castles, and feudalism.  The Crusades and Black Death. Feudalism:  Medieval social system.  Kings, lords, knights, and peasants.  Land ownership and loyalty. The Middle East and Africa:  Diverse cultures and empires.  Islamic civilization, trade, and empires like the Ottoman.  Ancient Egypt and kingdoms in Africa. Civilizations in the Americas:  Native American cultures.  Mayans, Aztecs, and Incas.  Advanced societies with architecture, agriculture, and astronomy. Renaissance and Reformation in Europe:  Rebirth of art, science, and learning.  Protestant Reformation led by Martin Luther.  Renaissance artists like Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. The Scientific Revolution, the Enlightenment, and the Industrial Revolution:  Advancements in science and reason.  Inventions and factories in the Industrial Revolution.  Thinkers like Isaac Newton and John Locke. The Age of Exploration:  European exploration of the world.  Columbus, Magellan, and new trade routes.  Colonization of the Americas. Building Empires:  European imperialism and colonies.   British Empire, French Empire, and more.  Exploitation and conflicts. Revolutions in Britain and France:  American Revolution's influence.  French Revolution and Reign of Terror.  Industrial changes in Britain. New Political Ideas in the 19th Century:  Ideas of liberty and equality.  Nationalism and democracy.  Karl Marx and communism. Political Developments in 19th-Century Europe:  Rise of powerful nations like Germany and Italy.  Industrialization and urbanization.  Tensions leading to World War I. World War I and the Russian Revolution:  The "Great War" and its causes.  Russian Revolution and rise of communism.  Treaty of Versailles. The Rise of Fascism:  Authoritarian governments in Italy and Germany.  Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini.  Pre-World War II tensions. World War II:  Global conflict with Axis and Allies.  Holocaust and atomic bombs.  Aftermath and United Nations. The End of European Dominance and the Formation of the European Union:  Post-World War II changes.  Decolonization and Cold War.  European integration and the EU. The End of the Soviet Union:  Collapse of communism in Eastern Europe.  The fall of the Berlin Wall.  Emergence of independent nations. China Today:  Modern China's economic rise.  Communist government and reforms.  Global influence. The Arab World:  Diverse cultures and nations.  Arab Spring and political changes.  Ongoing conflicts and challenges.