Studying Anthropology Textbook PDF

Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 9, 10 Anthropology – academic discipline that studies humanity from a broad biological and cultural standpoint Ch. 1 Learning objectives List the four major subfields of Anthropology and describe their primary interests Discuss how anthropology differs from oth...

Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 9, 10 Anthropology – academic discipline that studies humanity from a broad biological and cultural standpoint Ch. 1 Learning objectives List the four major subfields of Anthropology and describe their primary interests Discuss how anthropology differs from other disciplines that also study humanity Explain some practical uses in anthropology for solving human problems Discuss how cultural anthropology has changed in the last four decades Understand the meaning and importance of the holistic, comparative, relativistic perspectives Describe the wider lessons one can learn from studying anthropology The four major subfields, primary interests Biological or physical – comparison of human anatomy and behavior with other primate species; genetic variation among human populations; biological evolution of Homo sapiens Archaeology – Excavation of material remains in prehistoric sites to reconstruct early human ways of life; study of remains in historic sites to learn more about literate peoples Cultural – differences and similarities in contemporary and historically recent cultures; causes and consequences of sociocultural change; impacts of globalization and contacts on the world’s people Linguistics- relationships between language and culture; role of language and speaking in social life of various peoples; how language might shape perceptions and thoughts How anthropology is unique Specific focus is on human diversity, not like other fields Two most important diversities of anthropology o Genetic heritage, making humans diverse biologically o Customs and beliefs of one society or ethnic group differ from those of other societies or ethnic groups, showing humans are diverse culturally First hand research because they are the only profession to do research not in their own country Practical uses Examples of applied work that directly contributes to problem solving o Developmental anthropology – usually in developing countries, they provide information about communities that allows agencies to adapt projects to the local conditions o Educational anthropology – offers jobs in public agencies and private institutions. Roles include advising bilingual education, detailed observations of classroom  interactions, training personnel, and adapting teaching styles to local customs and needs o Corporate anthropology - Private companies will employ cultural anthropologists as consultants for international trade agreements, removing tariffs, quotas, and other barriers to international trade o Medical anthropologist – helping healthcare workers understand how cultural and social forces affect their ability to deliver services. Trained in biological and cultural anthropology How cultural anthropology has changed It has widened its investigations, and everything is simply more broad Focused less on peoples of the “far away” The boundaries between cultural anthropology and other disciplines are less clear-cut Now focuses on globalization Holistic, comparative, and relativistic perspectives Holistic – assumption that any aspect of a culture is integrated with other aspects, so that no dimension of culture can be understood in isolation. It means that no single aspect of a human culture can be understood unless its relationships to other aspects of the culture are explored. Comparative – valid generalizations about humans must take into account the full range of cultural diversity. Everything in the topic of the field must be compared to everything else on that topic in the field for something to become valid. Relativistic – no culture taken as a whole is inherently superior or inferior to any other. Cultural relativism – notion that one should not judge the behavior of other peoples using the standards of one’s own culture. Wider lessons from anthropology Helps us understand the biological, technological, and cultural development of humanity over long time spans. Teaches the importance of knowing and understanding cultural diversity. It puts the importance of having mutual respect and understanding among the worlds peoples. Helps minimize the miscommunications between people from different parts of the world. Ch. 2 Learning objectives Define culture in a way that is useful to compare and contrast different cultures Understand the concept of cultural knowledge and five of its key components Discuss the evidence for the origins of the human capacity for culture Analyze the relationship between cultural knowledge and the behavior of individuals  Describe why culture and biological differences between human populations vary independently Compare and contrast different cultures Culture is learned, shared, largely responsible for differences between human groups, and necessary to make human individuals into complete persons. Anthropologists use culture to emphasize the unique or most distinctive aspects of a people’s customs and beliefs. Cultures remain in some ways distinct despite the changes they have experienced over the years from historical contacts and globalization. Cultural Knowledge – five key components It includes beliefs, attitudes, rules, assumptions about the world, and other kinds of information stored in our brains. 1. Norms – Standards of propriety and appropriateness, e.g. expected behaviors at weddings and in classrooms. 2. Values – beliefs about social desirability and worth, e.g. individual rights, work ethic 3. Symbols – objects and behaviors with arbitrary and conventional meanings, e.g. interpretations of nonverbal behavior; meanings of sacred objects. 4. Classifications and constructions of Reality – divisions of reality into categories and subcategories, e.g. kinds of persons; divisions of nature into kinds of plants and animals. 5. Worldviews – interpretations of events and experiences, e.g. origin and content of good and evil; fate of soul in afterlife. Evidence of origins of human capacity for culture Hard evidence from Africa suggests that humanity had the capacity for culture around 80 000 years ago. They used fire to heat the mineral silcrete, which made it easier to flake stone stools accurately and finely. These were made into little sharp tools called microliths. Relationship between cultural knowledge and the behavior of individuals Cultural determinism (not accurate) - notion that the beliefs and behaviors of individuals are programmed by their culture. Cultural knowledge provides boundaries for behavior, and within these boundaries people are free to choose between alternative actions. Why culture and biological differences between human populations vary independently  Biological determinism – biologically inherited differences between populations are important influences on the cultural differences between them. Why anthropologists say that physical diffrences between human populations is mostly irrelevant in explaining cultural differences: o Individuals of any tyoe are equally capable of learning any culture. o An enormous range of cultural diversity was and is found on all continents and regions. o Dramatically different ways of thinking and behaving succeed one another in time within the same biological population and within the same society. Ch. 5 Learning Objectives Discuss the global forces that contributed to the emergence of anthropology. Describe the main ideas of the nineteenth century unilineal evolutionists. Understand the ways American historical particularism and British functionalism challenged unilineal evolutionism. Describe the mid-twentieth century rebirth of evolutionary interests (neoevolutionism) Discuss the main differences between the scientific and the humanistic approaches to modern anthropological thought. Describe evolutionary psychology, materialism, interpretive anthropology, and postmodernism. Analyze why contemporary anthropology has no single unifying theoretical orientation. Discuss the global forces that contributed to the emergence of anthropology. Colonialism truly put it on the map, well just contact between two new groups of people and the knowledge that they both exist. Describe the main ideas of the nineteenth century unilineal evolutionists. They applied the ideas of evolution to cultures, using written accounts as their main source of information about other cultures. They arranges cultures into a sequence of progressive stages with western civilization at the pinnacle. Understand the ways American historical particularism and British functionalism challenged unilineal evolutionism. American Particularists – demolished the speculative schemes of the unilineal evolutionists by arguing that concepts such as complexity depend on one’s point of view and so have little objective meaning. Great Britain Functionalists (Malinowski) - tried to show how the various parts of a culture and social system serve to meet the needs of individuals and society Both saw the importance of firsthand fieldwork as the surest path to accurate descriptions. Describe the mid-twentieth century rebirth of evolutionary interests (neoevolutionism) Neoevolutionists returned to cultural evolution while avoiding the mistakes of the unilineal evolutionists. They emphasized the importance of technology, and the adaptation to the local environment, as factors in making cultures the way they are. Discuss the main differences between the scientific and the humanistic approaches to modern anthropological thought. Scientifically oriented – believe that people are subject to the same kinds of natural forces as other animals and that genuine explanations of differences and similarities and long-term changes are possible and desirable. Humanistically oriented – believe that humanity is such a unique kind of animal that special concepts and theories are required to understand our species. Describe evolutionary psychology, materialism, interpretive anthropology, and postmodernism. Evolutionary psychology – emphasizes that humans are like other animals in that most of our behavior helps us transmit our genes to future generations. Materialists – argue that how a given people organize their groups and pattern their activities to acquire energy and materials from their natural environment is the major explanation for other aspects of their cultural system. Interpretive anthropologists – emphasize the uniqueness of studying, appreciating, and interpreting each culture individually.  Postmodernists – science in general has no particular claim to truth and that many scientific ideas taught by schools and colleges reflect power relationships in the wider social and cultural context. Analyze why contemporary anthropology has no single unifying theoretical orientation. Contemporary anthropologists do not agree among themselves on many fundamental questions, including even the major objectives of their field. Ch. 6 Learning Objectives Discuss the major objectives of cultural research Understand that research requires different methods Describe the method used to study the culture of a contemporary or living society Describe the method used to study the past culture of a society Understand the purpose of comparative research Explain cross-cultural comparisons Describe controlled comparative studies Major objectives of cultural research Two main objectives o Record as complete a description of the culture of a particular society as possible, these descriptive studies are called ethnographies o Attempt to explain this diversity in cultural behavior, these studies are called ethnologies Research requires different methods The ethnographic method used by researchers depends on whether they are studying the contemporary culture or the past culture of the society. Studies of the past culture can either be: o Synchronic – a description of the culture at a particular time in the past. o Diachronic – a description of the changes in the culture over time. Method used to study contemporary or living societies  Ethnographic field research (field work) - primary method of collecting data concerning the culture of a living people. Method used to study the past culture of a society Ethnohistoric research – the analysis of written accounts, published, unpublished, and any other materials that shed light on their past culture. Purpose of comparative research To test hypotheses in order to attempt to explain cultural diversity. Comparative methods involve ways of systematically and reliably comparing massive amounts of ethnographic information. Cross cultural comparisons The systematic comparisons of synchronic cultural data to determine correlations between particular cultural variables. Attempting to discover correlations different aspects of cultural behavior. Controlled comparative studies The systematic comparisons of documented changes in a limited number of cultural variables and societies over time. Ch. 9 Learning objectives Discuss the primary theories of incest taboos Analyze why marriage is difficult to define cross-culturally Describe the forms of marriage and some of the ways cultures use marriage relationships for wider purposes List the main patterns of marriage exchanges and the cultural rationales behind them Evaluate changes in attitudes toward same-sex marriage and why the issue is so controversial Discuss patterns of postmarital residence and some major influences on them Explain how postmarital residence patterns produce various household forms in human communities. Primary theories of incest taboos Rules or norms that regulate who may have sex with whom.  Four main hypotheses try to account for them: “Marry Out or Die Out,” “Peace in the family,” “Inbreeding Avoidance,” and “Familiarity Breeds Disinterest.” Why marriage is hard to define cross culturally Because of the wide diversity in marriage customs and beliefs. Some cultures don't even have marriage apart of it. The forms of marriage and ways cultures use marriage for wider purposes Commonly classified by the number of spouses an individual is allowed: polygyny, monogamy, polyandry, and group marriage. Wider purposes are just specific to certain cultures Main patterns of marriage and some of the ways cultures use marriage relationships for wider purposes. New marriages are usually accompanied by the exchange of goods or services between the families. Exchanges used to create or maintain old relationships, compensate a family or larger kin group for the loss of one of its members, provide for the new couples support, or endow a daughter with an inheritance that helps her attract a desirable husband. Changes in attitudes toward same-sex marriage and why the issue is so controversial Nothing really to talk about here seems pretty pointless actually Notes literally just state some facts and say it remains a major battle in todays culture. Patterns of postmarital residence and some major influences on them Again no real answer either Post marital patterns are patrilocal, matrilocal, ambilocal, bilocal, and neolocal. Economic and inheritance factors influence it. Postmarital residence patterns produce many household forms Again no real answer everything is just specific to each situation. Ch. 10 Learning Objectives Discuss why kinship is important in creating relationships, forming groups, and organizing activities in preindustrial cultures Describe the two main forms of unilineal descent and the kinship groups that result from them. Describe the two primary form of nonunilineal descent: bilateral and cognatic. Elaborate on the cultural construction of kinship and explain the wider associations of four of the major terminological systems Why kinship is important in creating relationships For organizing, as activities are organized by kinship groups in many premodern cultures Kinship groups often organize economic , political, military, ritual, and other activities. Two main forms of unilineal descent and kinship groups that resulted from them How people trace their relationships back to previous generations – iin how they trace their descent. People with unilineal descent emphasize relationships traced only through one sex. Matrilineal or patrilineal principle forms descent groups composed of people related through females and males respectively Two primary forms of nonunilineal descent: bilateral and cognatic People who trace their kinship relationships bilaterally have no kin groups larger than extended families because the kindreds of different individuals overlap so much. In cognatic descent, people have options of tracing their ancestry through men or women, or both. Individuals can join any of the groups to which they trace ancestry and can choose those groups with which they want to associate closely. Elaborate on the cultural construction of kinship and explain the wider associations of four of the major terminological systems. Generally speaking, the ideas people have about how they are related to one another are strongly influenced by how the kinship system of their society sorts people into groups and establishes relationships of certain kinds between kinfolk.  This application produces several systems of kin terminology, of which we discuss four: Eskimo, Hawaiian, Iroquois, and Omaha.