Soc Psych Finals Notes PDF

Conformity and Obedience - ​ 63% of the responses did not conform Chapter 6 ​ This experiments shows that most people “tell t...

Conformity and Obedience - ​ 63% of the responses did not conform Chapter 6 ​ This experiments shows that most people “tell the truth even Conformity when others do not” ​ A change in behavior or belief as the result of real or imagined Stanley Milgram’s Obedience group pressure ​ Tested what happens when the Acceptance demands of authority clash with ​ Conformity that involves both the demands of conscience acting and believing in accord What Breeds Obedience? with social pressure ​ When he varied the social Compliance conditions in his experiment, ​ Conformity that involves publicly compliance ranged from 0 to 93% acting in accord with an implied fully obedient. or explicit request while privately ​ Four factors determined disagreeing obedience : (1) the victim’s Obedience emotional distance, (2) the ​ A type of compliance involving authority’s closeness and acting in accord with a direct legitimacy, (3) whether the order or command authority was part of a respected Muzafer Sherif’s Studies of Norm institution, (4) and the liberating Formation effects of a disobedient fellow ​ Results of the study suggests participant. that the responses will change The Victim’s Distance ​ Group norm typically emerged ​ How close or obvious the victim Autokinetic Phenomenon is to the participant or the ​ Self motion executioner ​ The apparent movement of a ​ Depersonalization stationary point of light in the dark ​ Milgram’s participants acted with Mass Hysteria greatest obedience and least ​ Suggestibility to problems that compassion when the spreads throughout a large group participants could not be seen of people (and could not see them). Asch’s Studies of Group Pressure ​ When the victim was remote and ​ Participants judged which of the “teachers” heard no three comparison lines matched complaints, nearly all obeyed the standard calmly to the end ​ 37% of the response were conforming Closeness and Legitimacy of the Authority What can motivate people to resist ​ When the one making the social pressure? command is physically close, Reactance compliance increases ​ When social pressure threatens ​ The authority must be perceived the sense of freedom, individuals as legitimate usually resist ​ The physical presence of the ​ People act to protect their sense experimenter also affected of freedom obedience. When Milgram’s experimenter gave the Behavior and Attitudes commands by telephone, full ​ When external influences obedience dropped to 21 percent override inner convictions, (although many lied and said they attitudes fail to determine were obeying) behavior. ​ Other studies confirm that when ​ In the obedience experiments, a the one making the command is powerful social pressure physically close, compliance overcame a weaker one. increases. ​ Torn between the desire to avoid ​ The authority however must be doing harm and the desire to be a perceived as legitimate. In one good participant, a surprising study, hospital nurses were called number of people chose to obey. by an unknown physician and ordered to administer an obvious Predictions of Conformity drug overdose. Nearly all said Group Size they would not have followed the ​ A small group can have a big order. effect Liberating Effects of Group Influence ​ Researchers found that 3 to 5 ​ Conformity can also be people will elicit much more constructive conformity than just 1 or 2. ​ Diffusing responsibility Increasing the number of people ​ Sharing the experience with beyond 5 yields diminishing others results. Agentic State Unanimity ​ A frame of mind thought by ​ Several experiments reveal that Milgran to characterize someone who punctures a unquestioning obedience, in group’s unanimity deflates its which people as agents transfer social power. personal responsibility to the ​ People will usually voice their person giving orders own convictions if just one other  person has also differed from the Informational Infliuence majority ​ Comformity occurring when ​ Conformity is reduced if the people accept evidence about modeled behavior or belief is not reality provided by other people unanimous ​ Leads people to privately accept Cohesion others influence. ​ A “we feeling” - the extent to ​ The desire to be correct produces which members of a group are informational influence​ bound together, such as by attraction to one another. Who Conforms? ​ The more cohesive a group is, Personality the more power it gains over its ​ Low self esteem members. ​ High need for social support or ​ Conformity is enhanced by group social approval cohesion ​ Feelings of inferiority Status ​ People higher in agreeableness ​ Higher status people tend to have and conscientiousness more impact Culture Public Response ​ Collectivist people conform more ​ People conform more when they than individualist must respond in front of others ​ Conformity is viewed positively in rather than writing their answers collectivist culture privately ​ Cultural differences within social Prior Commitment classes ​ Once people commit themselves Situational Factors to a position, people seldom yield ​ People who conform in one to social pressure. situation may not conform in another situation Why Do People Conform? Social Roles Normative Influence ​ Social role compels us to follow ​ Conformity based on a person’s the rest of norms as expected desire to fulfill others’ from the role expectations, often to gain acceptance Chapter 7 - Persuasion ​ It is going along with the crowd to Persuasion avoid rejection, to stay in people’s ​ The action or fact of persuading good graces, or to gain their someone or of being persuaded approval. to do or believe something ​ Concern for social image ​ Is a process aimed at changing a produces normative influence person’s (or a group’s) attitude or  behavior toward some event, idea, or object. ​ Persuasion is neither inherently good nor bad. A message’s purpose and content elicits judgements of good or bad. The bad we call “propaganda”. The good we call “education”. Elements of Persuasion Two Routes to Persuasion Communicator Central Route ​ Who is saying something does ​ When people are motivated and affect how an audience receives able to think about an issue, it focusing on the arguments ​ Its not just the message that ​ Consists of thoughtful matters, but also who says it considerations of the arguments What makes one communicator (ideas, content) of the message more persuasive? ​ Occurs when interested people Credibility focus on the arguments and ​ Perceived expertise respond with favorable thoughts ​ Speaking Style ​ If those arguments are strong ​ Trustworthiness and compelling, percussion is Sleeper effect likely ​ A delayed impact of a message Peripheral Route that occurs when an initially ​ Focusing on cues that trigger discounted message becomes automatic acceptance without effective, such as we remember much thinking the message but forget the ​ Occurs when people are reason for discounting it. influenced by incidental cues, Attractiveness and Liking such as a speaker’s influences Attractiveness ​ Occurs when the listener decides ​ Having qualities that appeal to an wheter to agree with the audience is most persuasive on message based on other cues matters of subjective preference besides the strength of the ​ Physical Attractiveness arguments or ideas in the ​ Similarity also makes for message attractiveness Message Content ​ It matters not only who says something but what that person says  ​ The content of your message ​ The attitudes of older people especially what immediately usually show less change than do precedes it, can make big those of young people difference in how persuasive it is What they are thinking Foot in the door phenomenon ​ Counter Arguments ​ The tendency for people who ​ Distraction disarms have first agree to a small counterarguing request to comply later with a ​ Uninvolved audience use larger request peripheral cues Low Ball Technique Resisting Persuasion ​ A tactic for getting people to Attitude Inoculation agree to something. People who ​ Exposing people to weak attacks agree to an initial request will upon their attitudes so that when often still comply when the stronger attacks come, they will requester ups the ante have refutations available Door in the face technique ​ A technique used to make people ​ A strategy for gaining a immune to attempts to change concession. After someone turns their attitude by first exposing down a large request, the them to small arguments against requester counteroffers with a their position more reasonable request Reason VS Emotion Group Influence - Chapter 8 ​ Effect of good feelings Group ​ ​ Defined as two or more people ​ Effect of arousing fear who interact and who influence each other Primacy and Recency Effect How are we influenced by groups Mere Presence: Mere Presence of Others ​ Norman Triplett Norman Triplett (1898) noticed that cyclists’ times The Channel of Communication were faster when they raced ​ There must be a channel of together than when each one communication to persuade raced alone against the clock. someone; a face to face appeal, ​ Robert Zajonc - Arousal a written sign, or document, a enhances whatever response media advertisement tendency is dominant. Increased arousal enhances performance The Audience on easy tasks for which the most Age  likely—“dominant”—response is Driven by Distraction correct. ​ When we wonder how co-actors Social Facilitation are doing or how an audience is ​ The tendency of people to reacitng, we become distracted perform simple or well-learned ​ This conflict between paying tasks better when others are attention to others and paying present attention to the task overloads ​ Since social arousal facilitates our cognitive system, causing dominant responses, it should arousal boost performance on easy tasks Mere Presence and hurt performance on difficult ​ The mere presence of others tasks produces some arousal even without evaluation apprehension or arousing distraction Social Loafing: Exerting Less Effort when in Groups Social Loafing ​ The tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their Crowding efforts toward a common goal ​ The effect of others’ presence than when they are individually increases with their number accountable ​ Sometimes thea arousal and ​ The phenomenon of a person self-conscious attention created exerting less effort to achieve a by a large audience interferes goal when they work in a group even with well-learned, automatic than when working alone behaviors ​ When people are not ​ Being in a crowd also intensifies accountable and cannot evaluate positive or negative reactions their own efforts, responsibility is diffused across all group Why Are We Aroused in the members (Harkins & Jackson, Presence of Others? 1985; Kerr & Bruun, 1981) Evaluation Apprehension ​ when being observed increases ​ Observers make us apprehensive evaluation concerns, social because we wonder they are facilitation occurs; when being evaluating us lost in a crowd decreases ​ The enhancement of dominant evaluation concerns, social responses is strongest when loafing occurs people think they are being evaluated  ​ “Free-riders” People who benefit Group Size from the group but give little in ​ A group has the power not only to return. arouse its members but also to render them unidentifiable ​ People’s attention is focused on the situation, not on themselves ​ Everybody is doing it Anonimity ​ Being anonymous makes one less self-conscious, more group-conscious, and more responsive to situational cues Arousing and Distracting activities When do individuals loaf less ​ Group shouting, chanting, ​ Individual efforts are clapping, or dancing serve both evaluated to hype people up and to reduce ​ Accountability self consciousness ​ When the task is Diffused Responsibility challenging, appealing, or ​ occurs when people feel less involving such as in sports responsibility for taking action in ​ When members of the a given situation, because there groups are close friends are other people who could also ​ When the group is be responsible for taking action cohesive Deindividuation How Are We Influenced By ​ It’s in group situations that people Groups: are more likely to abandon Interacting Groups normal restraints, to forget their Group Polarization individual identity, to become ​ a phenomenon when “members responsive to group or crowd of a deliberating group move norms toward a more extreme point in ​ the loss of a person's sense of whatever direction is indicted by individuality and personal the members' pre-deliberation responsibility tendency ​ Loss of self-awareness in groups ​ refers to the tendency for a group when in groups, people act to make decisions that are more differently than they would as extreme than the initial inclination individuals of its members Important Factors for ​ Group discussions can polarize Deindividuation initial attitudes and opinions Informational Influence Unquestioned belief in the group’s ​ group discussion elicits a pooling morality of ideas, most of which favor the ​ Group members assume the dominant viewpoint inherent morality of their group ​ Active participation in discussion and ignore ethical and moral produces more attitude change issues than does passive listening Normative Influence (Closed-minded) ​ humans want to evaluate our Rationalization opinions and abilities by ​ The groups discount challenges comparing our views with others by collectively justifying their ​ We are most persuaded by decisions people in our “reference Stereotyped View of Opponent groups”—groups we identify with. ​.Not open to the view of the Moreover, we want people to like opponent us, so we may express stronger (Pressures towards uniformity) opinions after discovering that Conformity Pressure others share our views ​ Group members rebuffed those Groupthink who raised doubts about the ​ is a psychological phenomenon group’s assumptions and plans that occurs within a group of Self-Censorship people in which the desire for ​ To avoid uncomfortable harmony or conformity in the disagreements, members group results in an irrational or withheld or discounted their dysfunctional decision-making misgivings. People are less outcome willing to share their view when ​ when the desire for group they think others disagree consensus overrides people's Illusion of Unanimity common sense desire to present ​ Self-censorship and pressure not alternatives, critique a position, or to puncture the consensus create express an unpopular opinion an illusion of unanimity Mindguards Symptoms of Groupthink ​ Some members protect the group (Overestimating the group’s might from information that would call and right) into question the effectiveness or Illusion of invulnerability morality of its decisions ​ an excessive optimism that blinded them to warnings of Prejudice - Chapter 9 danger Prejudice  ​ a preconceived negative ​ Most of the world’s gay and judgment of a group and its lesbian people cannot individual members comfortably disclose who they ​ is an attitude—a combination of are and whom they love feelings, inclinations to act, and (Katz-Wise & Hyde, 2012; United beliefs Nations, 2011). Stereotypes ​ In some countries, same-sex ​ A belief about the personal relationships are a criminal attributes of a group of people offense. ​ Sometimes overgeneralized, Social Sources of Prejudice inaccurate, and resistant to new Social Inequalities information ​ Unequal status breeds prejudice Discrimination ​ Social dominance orientation. ​ unjustified negative behavior A motivation to have one’s group toward a group or its members. dominate other social groups. Racisms Those high in social dominance ​ An individual’s prejudicial orientation tend to view people in attitudes and discriminatory terms of hierarchies. They like behavior toward people of a their own social groups to be high given rac status—they prefer being on the Sexism top ​ An individual’s prejudicial Socialization attitudes and discriminatory ​ Prejudice springs from unequal behavior toward people of a status and from other social given sex, sources, including our acquired values and attitudes. The Common Forms of Prejudice influence of family socialization Racial Prejudice appears in children’s prejudices ​ Skin color is a trivial human The Authoritarian Personality characteristic ​ A personality that is disposed to ​ Nature dosen’t cluster races in favor obedience to authority and neatly defined categories\ intolerance of outgroups and Gender Prejudice those lower in status. Prone to ​ people’s beliefs about how prejudice and stereotyping women and men do behave. ​ Ethnocentric - Believing in the ​ Norms are prescriptive; superiority of one’s own ethnic stereotypes are descriptive. and cultural group, and having a ​ Gender stereotypes have corresponding disdain for all persisted across time and culture. other groups. LGBTQ+ Religion  ​ leaders invoke religion to sanctify attitudes) but also a social the present order identity (Chen et al., 2006; ​ they need to justify keeping Haslam, 2014). things the way they are ​ We also define ourselves by our Conformity groups ​ Once established, prejudice is Ingroup “Us” maintained largely by inertia. If ​ — a group of people who share a prejudice is socially accepted, sense of belonging, a feeling of many people will follow the path common identity. of least resistance and conform Ingroup Bias to the fashion. ​ The tendency to favor one’s own group. Institutional Supports ​ s is one example of the human ​ Social institutions (schools, quest for a positive self-concept. government, media, families) When our group has been may bolster prejudice through successful, we can make overt policies such as ourselves feel better by segregation, or by passively identifying more strongly with it reinforcing the status quo Outgroup “Them” ​ —-a group that people perceive Motivational Sources of Prejudice as distinctively different from or Frustration and Aggression: The apart from their ingroup. Scapegoat Theory Need for Status, Self-Regard, and ​ Pain and frustration (from the Belonging blocking of a goal) feed hostility. ​ Status is relative: To perceive When the cause of our frustration ourselves as having status, we is intimidating or unknown, we need people below us. Thus, one often redirect our hostility. psychological benefit of ​ This phenomenon of “displaced prejudice, or of any status aggression” (scapegoating) system, is a feeling of superiority. ​ The realistic group conflict Theory Management Theory theory suggests that prejudice ​ When people are already feeling arises when groups compete for vulnerable about their mortality, scarce resources prejudice helps bolster a Social Identity Theory: Feeling threatened belief system Superior to Others Mental Processes of Social Identity ​ Self-concept—our sense of who Theory we are— contains not just a Social Categorization personal identity (our sense of ​ Dividing the social world in our personal attributes and different categories of people is  always self-relevant. You always Distinctiveness: Perceiving people belong to one of the groups or a who stand out third ground. This lays the basis ​ Distinctive people and vivid or for social identity extreme occurrences often Social Comparison capture attention and distort ​ People are motivated to obtain a judgments positive social identity through Attribution positive intergroup social ​ We attribute others’ behavior so comparisons much to their inner dispositions Social identity that we discount important ​ A positive social identity serves situational forces basic needs for certainty, Group Serving Bias self-esteem and meaning ​ Explaining away outgroup Motivation to avoid Prejudice members’ positive behaviors; ​ Researchers who study also attributing negative stereotyping contend that behaviors to their dispositions prejudicial reactions are not (while excusing such behavior by inevitable one’s own group). ​ The motivation to avoid prejudice Just World Phenomenon can lead people to modify their ​ The tendency of people to thoughts and actions. Aware of believe that the world is just and the gap between how they should that people therefore get what feel and how they do feel, they deserve and deserve what self-conscious people will feel they get. guilt and try to inhibit their prejudicial response Consequences of Prejudice Self-Perpetuating Prejudgments Cognitive Sources of Prejudice ​ Prejudice involves preconceived Categorization judgments ​ One way we simplify our ​ Prejudgments guide our attention environment is to categorize—to and our memories organize the world by clustering ​ Prejudgments are objects into groups self-perpetuating. Whenever a ​ Ethnicity and sex are powerful group member behaves as ways of categorizing people. expected, we duly note the fact; ​ When we assign people to our prior belief is confirmed groups we are likely to Discrimination’s Impact: The Self exaggerate the similarities within Fulfilling Prophecy the groups and the differences ​ As with other self-fulfilling between them prophecies, prejudice affects its  targets ​ overall, physical attractiveness is Stereotype Threat an important factor in — ​ A self-confirming apprehension especially when dates stem from that one will be evaluated based first impressions. However, once on a negative stereotype people have gotten to know each Attraction and Intimacy - Chapter 11 other over months or years What leads to friendship and through jobs or friendships, they attraction? focus more on each person’s Proximity unique qualities rather than their ​ proximity prompts liking; we physical attractiveness and become friends to those who are status. within our proximity (church, ​ The matching phenomenon - school, neighborhood, clubs, People tend to select as friends, organizations, etc) and especially to marry, those ​ – Interaction enables people to who are a “good match” not only explore their similarities, to sense to their level of intelligence, one another’s liking, to learn popularity, and self-worth but also more about each other, and to to their level of attractiveness perceive themselves as part of a ​ The physical-attractiveness social unit. stereotype - The presumption ​ With repeated exposure to and that physically attractive people interaction with someone, our possess other socially desirable infatuation may fix on almost traits as well: What is beautiful is anyone who has roughly similar good. characteristics and who Similarity Versus Complementarity reciprocates our affection. ​ Friends, engaged couples, and ​ Anticipation of Interaction – spouses are far more likely than anticipating interaction boost randomly paired people to share liking common attitudes, beliefs, and ​ Anticipatory liking—expecting values that someone will be pleasant ​ The greater the similarity and compatible—increases the between husband and wife, the chance of forming a rewarding happier they are and the less relationship likely they are to divorce ​ Mere Exposure - The tendency Liking those who like us for novel stimuli to be liked more ​ one person’s liking for another or rated more positively after the does predict the other’s liking in rater has been repeatedly return exposed to them. ​ Thinking that someone probably Physical Attractiveness likes you tends to increase your  thinking about, and feeling attracted to, another What Enables Close Relationships Relationship Rewards Attachment ​ We are attracted to those we find ​ We are social creatures, destined it satisfying and gratifying to be to bond with others with ​ strong social attachment serves ​ reward theory of attraction - The as a powerful survival impulse. theory that we like those whose ​ Early attachment experiences behavior is rewarding to us or form the basis of internal working whom we associate with models or characteristic ways of rewarding events thinking about relationships ​ If a relationship gives us more rewards than costs, we will like it Attachment Styles and will want it to continue. Secure Attachment ​ Attachments rooted in trust and What Is Love? marked by intimacy. Passionate Love ​ This trusting attachment style ​ A state of intense longing for forms a working model of union with another. Passionate intimacy—a blueprint for one’s lovers are absorbed in each adult intimate relationships, in other, feel ecstatic at attaining which underlying trust sustains their partner’s love, and are relationships through times of disconsolate on losing it. conflict ​ Passionate love is what you feel ​ Securely attached adults find it when you not only love someone easy to get close to others and but also are “in love” with him or don’t fret about getting too her dependent or being abandoned. Intimacy Avoidant Attachment ​ refers to "feelings of closeness, ​ attachments marked by connectedness, and discomfort over, or resistance to, boundedness in loving being close to others. One of 2 relationships" types of insecure attachment Companionate Love ​ Avoiding closeness, avoidant ​ The affection we feel for those adults tend to be less invested in with whom our lives are deeply relationships and more likely to intertwined leave them ​ Unlike the wild emotions of ​ Avoidant individuals may be passionate love, companionate either fearful (“I am love is lower key; it’s a deep, uncomfortable getting close to affectionate attachment others”) or dismissing (“It is very  important to me to feel anxiety and where we are free to independent and self-sufficient”) open ourselves without fear of Anxious Attachment losing the other’s affection ​ Attachments marked by anxiety How do relationships end? or ambivalence. An insecure Loyalty attachment style. ​ by waiting for conditions to ​ As adults, insecure individuals improve. The problems are too are less trusting, more fretful of a painful to confront and the risks partner’s becoming interested in of separation are too great, so someone else, and therefore the loyal partner perseveres, more possessive and jealous hoping the good old days will ​ When discussing conflicts, they return get emotional and often angry Neglect and their self-esteem fluctuates ​ they ignore the partner and allow more based on feedback from the relationship to deteriorate. others, especially romantic With painful dissatisfactions partners ignored, an insidious emotional Equity uncoupling ensues as the ​ A condition in which the partners talk less and begin outcomes people receive from a redefining their lives without each relationship are proportional to other what they contribute to it. ​ What you and your partner get out of a relationship should be proportional to what you each put into it ​ If both feel their outcomes correspond to the assets and efforts each contributes, then both perceive equity ​ Long term equity ​ Perceived equity and satisfaction Self Disclosure ​ The process of deliberately revealing information about oneself that is significant and would not normally be known by others ​ A good relationship is a relationship where trust displaces