Chapter 12 Social Psychology PDF

of light in a dark room (the autokinetic effect). SOCIAL INFLUENCE When in groups, their judgments about the light’s movement converged. SOCIAL INFLUENCE...

of light in a dark room (the autokinetic effect). SOCIAL INFLUENCE When in groups, their judgments about the light’s movement converged. SOCIAL INFLUENCE Findings: The process by which individuals’ thoughts, In ambiguous settings, individuals rely on feelings, or behaviors are affected by others. group norms for guidance. It operates through direct interactions, implicit Demonstrates informational social group norms, or the mere presence of others. influence, where people adopt behaviors Understanding it is critical because it shapes or opinions based on perceived expertise decision-making, group dynamics, and societal of the group. trends. SOLOMON E. ASCH’S STUDY (1951) FORMS OF SOCIAL INFLUENCE Design: Participants judged line lengths after Conformity: Adjusting behavior to align with hearing unanimous, incorrect responses from group norms. confederates. Group Behavior: Behavior of a person within a Findings: group 33% conformity on average across trials. Compliance: Yielding to requests from others, Conformity decreased with: often without overt pressure. Presence of at least one dissenting Obedience: Following explicit instructions from confederate (social support). authority figures. Anonymous responses. Implication: Even in clear, measurable situations, social pressure can override individual judgment. CONFORMITY We tend to conform because we don’t want to be laughed at or have others be angry with us. CONFORMITY A fundamental aspect of social influence, driven CULTURAL AND GENDER VARIATIONS by the human need for belonging and Culture: certainty. Collectivist cultures (e.g., Japan, Hong Kong) emphasize group harmony and SHERIF’S STUDY (1936) exhibit higher conformity than Design: Participants viewed a stationary point individualistic cultures (e.g., U.S.).  Online anonymity reduces cultural group from contradictory information. differences in conformity. Gender: CHARACTERISTIC DESCRIPTION Minimal differences in private settings. In public settings, women show slightly Invulnerability Members feel they higher conformity due to societal cannot fail. expectations of agreeableness. Rationalization Members explain away WHY PEOPLE CONFORM warning signs and help Normative Social Influence: Desire for social each other rationalize acceptance or to avoid rejection (e.g., laughing their decision. at a joke one doesn’t understand). Informational Social Influence: Uncertainty in Lack of introspection Members do not examine situations leads to modeling behavior on others the ethical implications (e.g., adopting etiquette in foreign settings). of their decision because they believe GROUPTHINK that they cannot make Occurs when maintaining group cohesion is immoral choices. prioritized over critical analysis. It’s most common in cohesive groups with Stereotyping Members stereotype strong leaders and insulated decision-making their enemies as weak, processes. (involves many heads, but only one stupid, or unreasonable. group mind) Symptoms: Pressure Members pressure each 1. Illusion of Invulnerability: other not to question the Overconfidence in the group’s decisions. prevailing opinion. 2. Stereotyping Opponents: Negative views of dissenting perspectives. Lack of disagreement Members do not express 3. Pressure to Conform: Dissenters are opinions that differ from discouraged from voicing opposition. the group 4. Self-Censorship: Members with doubts consensus. refrain from speaking up. 5. Mind Guards: Individuals shield the  GROUP BEHAVIOR Self-deception Members share in the illusion that they all GROUP BEHAVIOR agree with the decision. Highlight the impact of groups on individual behavior. Insularity Members prevent the group from hearing disruptive but potentially GROUP POLARIZATION useful information from Definition: Tendency of people to make people who are outside decisions that are more extreme when they are the group. in a group as opposed to a decision when made alone or independently Examples of Groupthink: Examples: 1. The Iraq Invasion (2003): Decisions In juries, deliberation can lead to harsher based on faulty intelligence, driven by penalties or lower damages than unanimity within the Bush administration. individual preferences suggest. 2. The Challenger Disaster (1986): An Ateneo graduating student will hold Engineers' concerns were ignored to meet more Pro-Ateneo views than when he/she launch deadlines. was a freshman 3. The Titanic (1912): Overconfidence in the Causes: ship's design led to insufficient lifeboats. Group Decision Rules: The majority Preventing Groupthink: usually rules 1. Leadership neutrality to encourage open Normative Social Influence: Desire to dialogue. align with the group. 2. Inclusion of external opinions to diversify Informational Social Influence: viewpoints. Reinforcement from hearing similar 3. Secret ballots to reduce pressure to views. conform. Risky Shift Refers to a form of group polarizatipn taken by a group after discussion display more experimentation, become less conservative and become more risky than those made by individuals acting  alone prior to any discussion Example: The larger the group for an assigned In other words, the group decision is project, the more likely a person can load almost always riskier than when the without being detected decision is made alone or individually Cultural Variations: Risk as a Value Hypothesis: Suggests More prevalent in individualistic cultures that moderate risk is valued in our (e.g., U.S.). culture. People who shift toward risky Less common in collectivist cultures (e.g., decisions sometimes gain status and China), where group outcomes are linked approval from other group members to individual accountability. Prevention: Assigning clear individual SOCIAL FACILITATION VS. SOCIAL IMPAIRMENT responsibilities or fostering group Social Facilitation: interdependence. ○ Improved performance on simple tasks in the presence of others due to DEINDIVIDUATION heightened arousal (e.g., an athlete Definition: Loss of self-awareness and performing better in front of a crowd). accountability in group settings, leading to ○ Occurs only with easy tasks but not with impulsive or extreme behaviors. new or difficult tasks (e.g. if you are good Examples: at gold, you might perform better when Riots and mob violence. others are watching. But if you are not The Stanford Prison Experiment: Guards good at it, you might fare better if no else and prisoners adopted extreme roles due if watching) to anonymity and group dynamics. Social Impairment: Decreased performance Mechanisms: on complex tasks due to excessive arousal (e.g., Anonymity reduces inhibition. choking during a speech). Group identity overshadows personal Mechanism: Presence of others increases identity. physiological arousal, which aids or hinders performance depending on task difficulty. SOCIAL LOAFING COMPLIANCE Definition: Reduced effort when individuals work in groups, assuming their contributions will COMPLIANCE not be individually evaluated. Occurs when individuals change their behavior  in response to a request or directive from behavior. another person or group, even if that person or 2. Door-in-the-Face Technique group has no actual authority to command the The door-in-the-face technique is the change. opposite of the foot-in-the-door. It This is distinct from obedience, where behavior starts with a large request that is is changed due to authority figures. Compliance almost certain to be refused, followed by is often targeted in various areas like marketing, a smaller, more reasonable request. The sales, and social interactions, with several smaller request seems more reasonable psychological techniques designed to increase by comparison, and therefore, the the likelihood that someone will comply with a individual is more likely to comply. request. Example: A neighbor asks you to care for their pets and house, which you refuse. TECHNIQUES TO GAIN COMPLIANCE Then, they ask if you could at least water 1. Foot-in-the-Door Technique their plants, which seems like a much This method involves starting with a smaller and more manageable request, small request to which the person is and you’re more likely to comply. likely to agree. Once they comply, a Why it Works: This technique taps into larger request follows, which they are the principle of reciprocal concessions, more likely to agree to as well. The initial where the second request seems like a small request acts as a form of compromise. The person who made the commitment, and people feel a request appears more reasonable, and psychological need to maintain you feel inclined to return the favor. consistency with their earlier behavior. 3. Lowball Technique Example: A neighbor asks you to watch The lowball technique involves initially their house for a day, and after you offering a very favorable deal, followed agree, they ask if you could also water by an increase in the costs once the their plants. Since you’ve already agreed individual has committed to the to the smaller request, you’re more likely request. The person who committed is to agree to the larger one as well. likely to follow through with the deal Why it Works: The principle of despite the increased costs, as they are consistency plays a key role. After psychologically committed to the initial agreeing to the first small favor, people agreement. want to appear consistent with their prior Example: A car salesperson offers a car  at a low price, but once the customer is Phrases like “limited time offer” or “only a committed, additional costs such as few items left in stock” play on the taxes, fees, or optional upgrades are principle of scarcity, which increases the added, increasing the final price. perceived value of the product and Why it Works: This technique leverages encourages people to act quickly to avoid commitment—once a person has missing out. committed, it’s harder for them to back 4. Contrast Principle: out, even when the terms change. People Infomercials often display the original also experience cognitive dissonance if price alongside the discounted price, they back out after committing. creating the perception of a great deal. The large contrast between these two WHY DO PEOPLE FALL FOR PITCHES LIKE prices can influence people to think INFOMERCIALS? they’re getting a bargain, even if the Infomercials are a good example of how these product’s value doesn’t match the hype. compliance techniques are applied in marketing. Here's 5. Emotional Appeals: why people might fall for infomercial pitches: Many infomercials appeal to emotions 1. Foot-in-the-Door Technique: like frustration, loneliness, or insecurity Infomercials often start with a small, (e.g., the promise of looking younger or seemingly harmless offer (such as a free losing weight easily). These emotional trial or a low-priced product) and then appeals can cloud rational upsell additional items or services. decision-making, leading people to make Once the person commits to a small impulsive purchases. purchase, they’re more likely to go along 6. Cognitive Biases: with further purchases. Anchoring Bias: The initial price 2. Social Proof: presented (even if it’s inflated) serves as Many infomercials show testimonials or an anchor. Subsequent discounts seem large groups of people using the product. like a significant deal by comparison. This creates the impression that others Authority Bias: Infomercials often are benefiting from it, which makes the feature "experts" or celebrities, leading viewer feel like they’re missing out or people to trust the product due to making a mistake by not buying it. perceived authority or credibility. 3. Scarcity and Urgency: CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN COMPLIANCE person to act in a specific way. TECHNIQUES ○ The power of authority figures to demand Research shows that people from individualistic behavior is a central theme in cultures (such as the U.S.) tend to be more susceptible understanding why people might obey to techniques like the foot-in-the-door because they even when it involves harmful actions. place a higher value on personal consistency. On the other hand, people from collectivist cultures (like MILGRAM’S SHOCKING RESEARCH Japan) are less likely to comply based on previous One of the most iconic studies exploring actions because they are less focused on individual obedience is Stanley Milgram’s experiment, behavior and more on social harmony. conducted in the early 1960s, which sought to investigate how far people would go in obeying THE PSYCHOLOGY BEHIND CONSUMERISM an authority figure, even when the instructions Understanding how compliance techniques are used in were morally questionable. marketing helps explain why people often purchase In Milgram’s study, participants were told they things that aren’t necessarily beneficial or well-suited were part of an experiment on the effects of for them. In consumer psychology, the goal is to make punishment on learning. They were assigned the the customer feel good about their purchase and to role of "teacher," while a confederate (someone foster a sense of commitment or urgency. These in on the experiment) played the role of the techniques are deeply rooted in human psychology, "learner." The task involved administering and by understanding them, consumers can make shocks to the learner for every mistake they more informed and less impulsive decisions. made in a memory test. As the learner made mistakes, the teacher was instructed to increase the voltage of the shock, starting from a mild 15 OBEDIENCE volts and escalating to a potentially lethal 450 volts. OBEDIENCE Despite the learner's screams, pleas for mercy, Differs from compliance in that it involves and eventual silence (which were all changing one’s behavior at the direct command prerecorded), many participants continued of an authority figure. administering shocks when prompted by the While compliance happens when someone experimenter, who was dressed in a white lab requests a change in behavior, obedience coat and acted as an authoritative figure. occurs when an authority figure, such as a Initially, most participants believed they were teacher, police officer, or supervisor, orders a inflicting real pain, and many showed signs of  distress, but 65% of the participants continued ○ The proximity of the authority figure to the highest shock level (450 volts), showing and the perceived legitimacy of their the power of authority in influencing behavior. authority can significantly impact Key Findings from Milgram’s Study obedience. When the authority is Predictions vs. Reality: Before the study, physically close and has recognized, psychiatrists and the general public formal power, individuals are more likely predicted that participants would not go to obey. far in obeying the orders. However, most Institutionalized Authority participants obeyed up to the highest ○ The environment or institution in which voltage. the authority figure operates can Psychological Stress: Many participants influence the degree of obedience. were visibly distressed, yet they People are more likely to obey when they continued due to the commands from the perceive the authority figure as part of a experimenter. Milgram himself was reputable, legitimate institution (e.g., a surprised by the extent of obedience. university, military, government). Replications and Cross-Cultural Findings: Milgram’s study was replicated FACTORS THAT MAKE OBEDIENCE MORE LIKELY in various countries, with consistent Several factors influence the likelihood that people will results—around 61-66% of participants obey authority figures: would obey the authority figure’s 1. Proximity of Authority: Obedience is more commands. likely when the authority figure is physically present. When Milgram had the experimenter FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE DEGREE OF give orders over the phone or in a less OBEDIENCE authoritative manner, obedience rates dropped Emotional Distance of the Victim significantly. ○ People are more likely to obey authority 2. Legitimacy of Authority: The more legitimate figures when the victim is emotionally the authority figure appears, the more likely distant or depersonalized. This means participants are to obey. The presence of an that when the victim is not physically experimenter in a lab coat enhanced the present or is perceived as less human, authority's credibility in Milgram’s study, leading people may be more willing to carry out to higher obedience. harmful orders. 3. Peer Influence: When others refuse to comply, Closeness and Legitmacy of the Authority the likelihood of obedience decreases. In  Milgram’s study, if other participants (or followed up with participants after the study confederates) expressed reluctance to continue, and found that most reported feeling glad to others were less likely to obey. have been part of it, some psychologists argue 4. Dehumanization of the Victim: When the that such extreme measures of stress and learner (victim) is distanced or made to seem deception should not be allowed in modern less human (e.g., placed in another room or research. hidden from sight), the teacher’s ability to In recent years, ethical concerns have led to empathize and refuse orders is diminished, reforms in experimental design. A replication making obedience more likely. study by Burger (2009) modified Milgram’s 5. Gradual Escalation: Milgram’s study utilized a procedures, limiting shocks to 150 volts and gradual increase in the shock level, which ensuring that participants were clearly informed minimized the resistance. Once the participant of their right to withdraw. The findings were had administered a few shocks, the next, slightly similar to the original, though fewer participants higher shock seemed less objectionable. This were willing to continue past the 150-volt mark, gradual increase in responsibility can make it highlighting a possible decrease in obedience difficult for people to recognize the moral under more ethical guidelines. implications of their actions, similar to the foot-in-the-door technique used in compliance. THEORIES OF OBEDIENCE 6. Responsibility and the "Agentic State": Recent perspectives suggest that obedience in Milgram suggested that people enter an Milgram’s study might not be due to simple "agentic state" during obedience, where they compliance but rather related to social identity perceive themselves as merely an instrument of theory. the authority, not responsible for their actions. According to this theory, participants identified The experimenter in the study assured with the authority figure (the experimenter), participants that they would take full seeing their actions as part of a larger goal responsibility for the learner’s welfare, which of scientific discovery, rather than just reduced personal accountability. following orders. ○ This theory suggests that people don’t ETHICAL CONCERNS AND CRITICISM blindly obey out of submission, but Milgram's study raised serious ethical questions. because they align themselves with the Many participants experienced extreme goals of the authority figure. psychological distress, believing they were harming someone else. Although Milgram CONCLUSION Milgram’s research and subsequent studies into ATTITUDES obedience provide important insights into human A psychological tendency to evaluate an idea, behavior and the power of authority. While we might person, object, or situation positively or believe we would refuse to obey harmful orders, the negatively. reality is that many people are capable of following This evaluation influences behavior, instructions far beyond what we might expect, perception, and decision-making, even before especially when those instructions come from a encountering the subject. perceived authority figure. The findings emphasize the importance of questioning authority, and considering COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDES (ABC MODEL): how obedience plays a role in large-scale harmful Attitudes are multidimensional, composed of: events, such as historical atrocities. 1. Affective Component: What it is: Emotional reactions and feelings toward a subject. Example: A person feels happiness when SOCIAL COGNITION listening to country music, associating it with joy and relaxation. SOCIAL COGNITION 2. Behavioral Component: Focuses on the ways in which people think What it is: Observable actions or about other people and how those cognitions behaviors influenced by an attitude. influence behavior toward those people Example: Attending a concert or buying Helps in understanding how we perceive others, music reflects a positive attitude toward how we form our first impressions of them, and country music. how we explain the behaviors of others and 3. Cognitive Component: ourselves What it is: Beliefs, thoughts, and knowledge about a subject. THERE ARE 3 AREAS: Example: Believing country music lyrics Attitudes are more meaningful than those in pop Impression Formation music. Atrribution WHY ATTITUDES DON’T ALWAYS PREDICT BEHAVIOR: ATTITUDES Research shows attitudes are not foolproof predictors of behavior due to:  1. Situational Constraints: Financial, social, or beliefs. environmental factors (e.g., supporting Vicarious Conditioning (Observational Learning): eco-friendly products but not purchasing due to Definition: Learning attitudes by observing high cost). others’ behaviors and their outcomes. 2. Attitude Strength: Strong, specific attitudes are Example: A child notices their mother’s fear of more predictive of behavior than weak or dogs and develops a similar fear. general ones (e.g., anti-smoking beliefs lead to Mass Media and Cultural Influence: stronger action in health-related settings). Media outlets like TV, books, and 3. Cognitive Dissonance: Discrepancies between advertisements play a pivotal role in shaping attitudes and behavior often lead to societal attitudes. Marketing campaigns, for rationalizations rather than behavior change. example, leverage this to promote consumer behavior. FORMATION OF ATTITUDES: HOW THEY DEVELOP Attitudes are not innate; they are learned through CHANGING ATTITUDES: THE PROCESS OF experiences and social influences. Key mechanisms PERSUASION include: Attitudes are malleable and subject to change when Direct Contact: individuals encounter new experiences, knowledge, or Definition: First-hand experience with the persuasion. subject. Example: A child trying brussels sprouts and PERSUASION: CORE FACTORS INFLUENCING disliking the taste develops a negative attitude CHANGE toward them. Persuasion is the process of altering beliefs or Direct Instruction: attitudes through communication. Effectiveness Definition: Learning attitudes from authority depends on: figures like parents or teachers. 1. Source: Example: A parent warns a child about the Experts, trustworthy figures, and dangers of smoking, leading to a negative attractive or relatable communicators are perception of cigarettes. more persuasive. Interaction with Others: Example: A celebrity endorsing a product Definition: Social influence from peers or may persuade fans more than an groups with similar attitudes. unknown spokesperson. Example: A teenager adopts their friends’ view 2. Message: that smoking is "cool," despite contrary personal Clear, logical, and well-organized  messages are more compelling. Peripheral-Route Processing: Presenting both sides of an argument Focus on superficial cues (e.g., the can be more persuasive for neutral speaker’s appearance or the length of audiences. the message). Moderate fear appeals (e.g., health Often leads to short-term change. warnings) work best when paired with Example: Supporting a candidate actionable solutions. because they appear confident, without 3. Target Audience: analyzing their policies. Characteristics such as age, education, and openness to change influence COGNITIVE DISSONANCE: RESOLVING susceptibility. CONFLICTING ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIORS Younger individuals (late teens to Definition: mid-20s) are typically more ○ Cognitive dissonance arises when an impressionable. individual’s behavior conflicts with 4. Medium: their beliefs, causing psychological The channel through which a message is discomfort. conveyed (e.g., TV, social media, or print) Example: “Smoking is bad” vs. “I smoke daily” affects its impact. Mechanisms for Reducing Dissonance: Visual and auditory stimuli (e.g., televised ○ To resolve this tension, individuals may: political debates) tend to leave stronger 1. Change Behavior: Align actions with impressions. attitudes. Example: Quitting smoking after ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD MODEL (ELM): accepting its health risks. This model explains how individuals process persuasive 2. Change Attitude: Reinterpret beliefs to messages: justify behavior. Central-Route Processing: Example: Convincing oneself that Focus on the content, quality, and logic smoking isn’t that harmful. of the message. 3. Add Cognitions: Create new justifications Results in long-term attitude change if for behavior. persuasion is successful. Example: Believing that smoking Example: Reading a detailed article on “light” cigarettes minimizes risks. climate change and adopting eco-friendly habits. FESTINGER AND CARLSMITH'S EXPERIMENT: relationships. Demonstrated cognitive dissonance Behavioral Change Campaigns: Public health Participants completed a dull task and were and environmental campaigns leverage asked to lie to a waiting participant about its persuasion and dissonance to motivate action enjoyment. (e.g., anti-smoking ads). Findings: Those paid $1 (insufficient external justification) changed their attitude to reduce dissonance, convincing IMPRESSION FORMATION themselves the task was enjoyable. Those paid $20 had sufficient justification IMPRESSION FORMATION and experienced no dissonance. A fundamental aspect of social cognition, Neurological Basis: encompassing the initial evaluations we make Studies show that the left frontal about others upon meeting them. cortex, associated with These evaluations are influenced by processes decision-making and like social categorization and implicit self-reflection, is active during personality theories, which help us make sense dissonance resolution. of and predict others' behaviors. Even 4-year-old children and monkeys exhibit dissonance-like SOCIAL CATEGORIZATION behavior, suggesting simpler Involves assigning individuals to specific groups cognitive mechanisms may or categories based on observable underpin this phenomenon. characteristics, such as appearance, behavior, or speech. BROADER IMPLICATIONS AND APPLICATIONS This process occurs automatically and Marketing and Advertising: Advertisers use unconsciously, helping us organize and process persuasion techniques (e.g., attractive information about new people quickly. spokespeople) and aim to reduce cognitive Benefits of Social Categorization: dissonance (e.g., "Sustainable but affordable Efficient Information Processing: It enables products"). quick judgments by accessing stored information Interpersonal Influence: Understanding about similar groups or individuals. attitudes helps in conflict resolution, Memory Organization: It helps organize negotiations, and fostering positive characteristics and behaviors associated with  certain groups for future reference. Functions of Implicit Personality Theories: Predictive Value: By categorizing someone, we Schema Development: These theories help form infer possible behaviors or traits, aiding in schemas—mental frameworks that organize decision-making and interactions. information about "types" of people. Challenges and Stereotypes: Simplification: They reduce the complexity of While useful, social categorization can lead to interpersonal interactions by offering a simplified overgeneralizations or stereotypes, where understanding of personality and behavior. certain traits are inaccurately attributed to all Cultural Differences: members of a category. For example: Implicit personality theories can vary across cultures. Stereotype Formation: Believing "red hair For example: equals a bad temper" is a limiting and Americans often view personality as fixed and often false assumption. unchanging. Primacy Effect: First impressions, often Hong Kong Chinese are more likely to see based on superficial categorizations, are personality as fluid and adaptable (Chiu et al., resistant to change and can solidify 1997). stereotypes. Risks of Implicit Personality Theories: Critical Thinking to Avoid Negative Stereotyping: Stereotyping: Limited interactions with diverse Awareness of our biases and questioning stereotypes groups can cause schemas to solidify into can mitigate their negative impact. For example, stereotypes, often based on superficial traits like instead of assuming that someone with many piercings skin color or physical appearance. is aggressive, we can recognize that this assumption is Bias in Judgment: Relying too heavily on these unfounded and instead focus on learning more about assumptions can lead to inaccurate conclusions the individual. about individuals. IMPLICIT PERSONALITY THEORIES TOOLS FOR STUDYING IMPLICIT ATTITUDES Sets of beliefs about how personality traits and Implicit Association Test (IAT): behaviors are related. The IAT is a computerized test designed to These theories are shaped during childhood and measure implicit attitudes by examining reaction influence how we perceive and predict others' times in categorizing words or images. For actions. example: For instance: Assuming happy people are also Participants classify words like "pleasant" friendly or quiet people are shy reflects an or "unpleasant" alongside images or terms implicit personality theory. associated with certain groups.  Faster associations between certain pairs aspect of social cognition helps us understand, (e.g., positive words and one group) reveal predict, and respond appropriately in social implicit biases. contexts. Applications of the IAT: Studying prejudices and stereotypes. ATTRIBUTION THEORY: SITUATIONAL VS. Highlighting unconscious associations that may DISPOSITIONAL CAUSES differ from conscious beliefs. Developed by Fritz Heider (1958), attribution Encouraging self-awareness about implicit theory posits two primary explanations for biases. behavior: ○ Situational Causes (External): Behavior THE PRIMACY EFFECT IN IMPRESSION FORMATION attributed to external factors, such as Highlights the enduring impact of first environmental circumstances or events. impressions. Initial judgments, often based on Example: Explaining someone’s physical appearance or observable traits, tend tardiness as caused by traffic or a to persist even when contradictory car problem. information becomes available. ○ Dispositional Causes (Internal): Implications: Behavior attributed to internal factors, Impact on Relationships: Early impressions can such as personality traits or inherent shape how relationships develop, as they color characteristics. future perceptions and interactions. Example: Viewing tardiness as a Reinforcement of Stereotypes: If first sign of someone being careless or impressions align with stereotypes, they may disrespectful of others' time. reinforce biased beliefs about groups or individuals. The type of attribution chosen often depends on the observer’s perspective, relationship to the individual, and contextual factors. THE FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR (FAE) ATTRIBUTION The fundamental attribution error refers to the tendency to: ATTRIBUTION Overestimate dispositional factors: Observers The process of explaining the causes of attribute others' behaviors to internal behaviors—our own and those of others. This characteristics.  Underestimate situational factors: External (Internal attribution) circumstances are often ignored. Failure: If you fail the exam, you might think, Example: "The test was unfair, and the teacher didn’t When someone cuts us off in traffic, we may assume prepare us properly." they’re rude or reckless (dispositional) rather than (External attribution) considering they might be rushing due to an Why It Happens: emergency (situational). Self-esteem protection: People want to feel good about themselves and preserve their ACTOR–OBSERVER BIAS: self-image. For others' actions: We tend to attribute their Cognitive biases: It's easier to accept behavior to dispositional factors. responsibility for positive outcomes than For our own actions: We explain behavior negative ones. through situational causes because we are Cultural influences: In individualistic cultures, aware of the external influences affecting us. self-serving bias is more pronounced. In Why It Happens: collectivistic cultures, people might instead 1. Focus of Attention: Observers focus on the emphasize group success or blame personal individual rather than the broader context. shortcomings. 2. Limited Information: Observers lack full access to situational factors influencing behavior. 3. Cognitive Effort: Dispositional attributions are CULTURAL AND CONTEXTUAL INFLUENCES ON quicker and easier to make than situational ATTRIBUTION ones, requiring less cognitive effort. Individualistic Cultures: Found in Western societies (e.g., the U.S.). SELF-SERVING BIAS Emphasize personal responsibility and A psychological tendency to attribute independence. successes to internal, personal factors while More prone to the fundamental attribution attributing failures to external, situational error. factors. Collectivistic Cultures: It’s a common way to protect self-esteem and Found in Eastern societies (e.g., Japan, China). maintain a positive self-image. Emphasize social roles and interdependence. Example: Tend to attribute behavior to situational Success: If you ace an exam, you might think, "I factors. worked really hard and am naturally smart." Cross-Cultural Research:  Study Example: Masuda and Kitayama (2004) Reflect on how you might act in the same asked participants to interpret a person's situation. attitude based on a written statement. Example: If you’d also cheat under Americans: Assumed the person’s high-pressure conditions, the behavior attitude matched the statement might be situational. (dispositional). 3. Seek Additional Information: Japanese: Considered social obligations, Observe non-obvious cues, such as stress suggesting the statement might not or environmental challenges. reflect true beliefs (situational). Example: A tardy person looking flustered might have faced unforeseen obstacles. ATTRIBUTIONS IN RELATIONSHIPS Attribution patterns can influence relationship OTHER INFLUENCES ON ATTRIBUTION satisfaction: Age: Happy Relationships: Positive behaviors are Older adults: More likely to attribute actions to attributed to internal causes (e.g., kindness), dispositional causes. and negative behaviors to external causes Younger adults: Tend to consider situational (e.g., stress at work). factors more frequently. Unhappy Relationships: Positive behaviors are Emotional and Cognitive Factors: attributed to ulterior motives (external), while Cognitive Dissonance: The discomfort of not negative behaviors are linked to internal flaws understanding one’s own actions may drive (e.g., selfishness). situational attributions. Emotion and Motivation: Positive emotions can bias attributions toward internal causes, while REDUCING ATTRIBUTION ERRORS negative emotions may favor external To minimize biases like the fundamental attribution explanations. error: 1. Consider Social Context: Look for broader situational influences affecting behavior. Example: Multiple students arriving late SOCIAL INTERACTION may indicate a traffic delay rather than individual carelessness. SOCIAL INTERACTION 2. Think from the Actor’s Perspective: Relationships between people, both casual and  intimate Others: Discrimination based on religion, Include prejudice and discrimination, liking and economic status, weight, or sexual loving, and aggression orientation. In-Group vs. Out-Group: PREJUDICE VS. DISCRIMINATION In-Group: Groups with which individuals Prejudice: An attitude—often negative and identify (“us”). unsupported—that is directed toward members Out-Group: Groups seen as different or of a specific social group. separate (“them”). Example: Believing all teenagers are Prejudice often emerges from negative irresponsible without evidence. stereotypes about out-groups and Discrimination: A behavior that arises from persists because stereotypes are hard to prejudicial attitudes, resulting in unequal dispel. treatment of individuals or groups in situations where equality is expected. Example: Denying someone a job based on their ethnicity. PREJUDICE & DISCRIMINATION Key Distinction: MECHANISMS DRIVING PREJUDICE While laws can target discriminatory behavior, Scapegoating changing prejudicial attitudes is far more challenging Definition: Blaming a less powerful group for because attitudes are internal and personal. societal frustrations and difficulties. Example: During the 1992 Los Angeles riots, frustration over the Rodney King verdict was TYPES OF PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION directed at Asian American neighborhoods—the Prejudice and discrimination can target various social group with the least power in the area. groups and are often tied to in-group and out-group Realistic Conflict Theory dynamics: Explanation: Prejudice increases when groups Types: compete for scarce resources like jobs or land. Ageism: Prejudice based on age (e.g., Historical Examples: toward teenagers or the elderly). Conflicts between colonists and native Sexism: Discrimination based on gender. populations. Racism: Prejudice against individuals of Tensions between Irish Catholics and different ethnic backgrounds. Protestants. Social Cognitive Theory consequences of prejudice. Perspective: Prejudice is learned through: Highlighting commonalities between Direct instruction: Explicit teachings, groups to weaken "us vs. them" dynamics. such as parental bias. 3. Legislation: Modeling: Observing and imitating Enforcing anti-discrimination laws to limit prejudiced behaviors. prejudicial behaviors in critical areas like Social influence: Absorbing societal employment and housing. norms and attitudes. 4. Promoting Empathy: Encouraging perspective-taking to WHY PREJUDICE PERSISTS understand the experiences and Formation of Stereotypes struggles of out-group members. Stereotypes simplify social understanding but 5. Modeling Positive Behaviors: often rely on superficial characteristics (e.g., Public figures and leaders demonstrating skin color or accent). inclusivity and respect can set powerful Once established, stereotypes are resistant to examples for others. change. In-Group Loyalty SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY (SIT) Identifying with an in-group fosters cohesion Developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner but also amplifies bias against out-groups. (1986) Power Dynamics Provides a detailed explanation of how group Prejudice often stems from and reinforces memberships influence self-concept, attitudes, societal power imbalances, as out-groups are and behaviors. more vulnerable to discriminatory practices. Emphasizes the psychological processes that drive in-group favoritism and out-group REDUCING PREJUDICE discrimination, which can foster prejudice. While eliminating prejudice entirely is challenging, several strategies can mitigate its effects: KEY PROCESSES IN SIT 1. Increasing Intergroup Contact: 1. Social Categorization Encouraging cooperative interactions Individuals naturally categorize between groups to reduce stereotypes themselves and others into groups (e.g., and foster understanding. gender, ethnicity, profession). This 2. Education and Awareness: process simplifies social interactions by Teaching about the origins and organizing complex social information.  These categories become mental In-group favoritism leads to preferential shortcuts, forming the foundation for treatment of one's own group. stereotypes. For example: Out-groups are often dehumanized or viewed "All teachers are patient." as inferior, fueling discrimination and social "Teenagers are reckless." conflict. However, this can lead to Real-World Examples overgeneralization and negative Historical Context: Segregation laws in the stereotypes about out-groups. United States created rigid in-groups and 2. Identification out-groups based on race, reinforcing systemic People define part of their self-concept racism. by identifying with groups (in-groups). Workplace Dynamics: Employees may form This creates emotional and psychological cliques based on roles, seniority, or shared connections, leading individuals to interests, excluding newcomers or minority prioritize in-group success and cohesion. groups. Example: A person who identifies strongly as a member of a particular THE ROLE OF STEREOTYPES: VULNERABILITY AND religion may feel pride when their THREAT community achieves recognition. Stereotypes influence both how we perceive others and 3. Social Comparison how individuals perceive themselves, creating People boost self-esteem by comparing significant psychological and social consequences. their in-group favorably to out-groups. Stereotype Vulnerability Positive distinctions between "us" and Definition: The awareness of stereotypes "them" reinforce group pride but can about one’s group can cause anxiety and also perpetuate prejudice. self-consciousness, impacting behavior and Example: Fans of one sports team may performance. deride rival teams to feel superior, even Mechanism: When individuals are reminded of without direct interaction with members stereotypes, they may unintentionally conform of the other group. to those stereotypes, fulfilling others' biased expectations. IMPACT ON PREJUDICE Example: Women exposed to the stereotype SIT helps explain the origins of prejudice by showing that they are poor at math may perform worse how group identity fosters an "us versus them" on tests, even if they have strong mathematical mentality: abilities. Stereotype Threat Equal Power: Both groups must have the same Definition: A specific form of stereotype level of authority or influence during vulnerability where fear of confirming a interactions. stereotype undermines performance. Common Goals: Cooperation toward shared Research Example: objectives reduces hostility and fosters Steele and Aronson (1995) conducted a understanding. study where African American Institutional Support: Authorities or systems participants performed worse on a verbal must endorse and facilitate equality. test after being reminded of their race. Robber’s Cave Experiment (Sherif et al., 1961): The reminder heightened anxiety and Setup: Researchers divided 22 boys at a self-doubt, leading to poorer outcomes. summer camp into two groups and fostered Women in STEM fields often in-group bonds. Competitive tasks between underperform in environments where groups led to conflict and hostility. their gender is highlighted as a minority Outcome: Only cooperative tasks requiring status. equal contributions from both groups (e.g., Overcoming Stereotype Threat fixing a water shortage) reduced animosity. This Reframing Identity: Encouraging individuals to demonstrated the power of equal-status, identify with a broader group (e.g., "students" cooperative interactions in mitigating prejudice. rather than "women") can reduce the 2. The Jigsaw Classroom psychological weight of stereotypes. Developed by Aronson et al. (1978), the jigsaw Boosting Self-Esteem: High self-esteem acts as classroom is an educational technique designed to a buffer against stereotype threat, helping reduce prejudice and foster collaboration: individuals resist its negative effects. Students are divided into diverse groups. Each member is given unique, essential REDUCING PREJUDICE: EVIDENCE-BASED information to solve a shared problem ("a piece STRATEGIES of the puzzle"). Although prejudice arises from deep psychological and Success requires every group member to social mechanisms, interventions can reduce its impact contribute, promoting interdependence and and promote inclusivity. equal participation. 1. Equal Status Contact Impact: This strategy, derived from Gordon Allport's Contact Increased empathy and understanding across Hypothesis (1954), suggests that prejudice decreases group boundaries. when diverse groups interact under specific conditions: Reduction in stereotypes and  in-group/out-group distinctions. virtual platforms to foster intergroup Applicability across age groups, from connections in safe, neutral environments. elementary schools to universities. Policy Changes: Implementing affirmative 3. Education and Intergroup Contact action, anti-discrimination laws, and diversity Cultural Awareness: Education about training in workplaces and schools. other cultures, histories, and experiences Ongoing Research: Understanding how helps dismantle ignorance-driven intersecting identities (e.g., race, gender, prejudice. religion) compound prejudice to design more Direct Interaction: Opportunities to inclusive interventions. engage with people from different backgrounds (e.g., diverse college campuses) build mutual understanding. Shared Experiences: Collaborative efforts, such as community service or LIKING AND LOVING: INTERPERSONAL team projects, allow groups to find ATTRACTION common ground. INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION BROADER IMPLICATIONS AND CHALLENGES The liking or desire for a relationship with While strategies like the jigsaw classroom and someone—is a well-researched area in equal-status contact are effective, challenges remain: psychology. Implicit Bias: Prejudices often operate Factors influencing attraction include physical unconsciously, making them harder to address characteristics, proximity, and shared traits. through direct interventions. These elements help explain why we form Systemic Inequalities: Structural barriers (e.g., relationships with some people and not others. economic disparities, unequal education systems) perpetuate prejudice and limit FACTORS GOVERNING INTERPERSONAL opportunities for meaningful contact. ATTRACTION Cultural Resistance: Societies with entrenched 1. Physical Attractiveness norms or power imbalances may resist change, Role in Attraction: necessitating broader systemic reforms. Physical beauty often serves as an initial factor in attraction. People Future Directions are naturally drawn to those they Technology and Media: Using social media and find visually appealing, as physical  attractiveness is associated with the same office. positive traits such as health and Impact on Attraction: vitality. People are more likely to form Studies show that physical beauty relationships with those they heavily influences first encounter regularly due to impressions and initial romantic increased opportunities for interest but becomes less critical interaction. in long-term relationships. The mere exposure effect Physical Attractiveness Stereotype: suggests that repeated exposure Posits the presumption that to a person or object enhances physically attractive people liking. For example, seeing a possess other socially desirable colleague daily may make them traits as well seem more attractive over time. Matching Hypothesis Real-Life Example: College students That while we may prefer a more often form friendships or romantic attractive person in the abstract, relationships with classmates or dorm in the real world, we end up mates due to shared spaces and frequent choosing someone who is close interactions. ot our own level of attractiveness Friendship-Promoting-Effect of Research Findings: Proximity: Research shows that the best Eagly et al. (1991) and Feingold single predictor of whether two people (1992) found that physical are friends is how far apart they live (e.g. attractiveness significantly affects you tend to have a crush on your partner selection, especially in the classmate) early stages of a relationship. Exemption to the rule: when initial Over time, personality traits and antagonisms seems to occur compatibility tend to outweigh 3. Familiarity physical appearance. Definition: May breed contempt, but this 2. Proximity (Being Physically Close) is necessary for close relationships to Definition: Proximity refers to the develop physical closeness between individuals, Familiarity-Breeds-Liking Effect: Sheer such as living in the same neighborhood, exposure increases liking attending the same school, or working in ○ Example: You rate this photograph  high because you have seen it (1982) and Neimeyer & Mitchell most often; while you rate the (1998) indicate that shared values other photograph low because you and hobbies significantly haven’t seen it before contribute to long-lasting If you are not beautiful or you find your relationships. admiration of someone unreciprocated, Opposites Attract? be persistent and hang around. Proximity While the phrase “opposites and familiarity are your most powerful attract” is popular, research weapons largely contradicts this notion. 4. Similarity (Birds of a Feather) Long-term relationships are more Definition: People tend to like others who likely to thrive when built on share similar values, interests, and shared similarities rather than attitudes. complementary differences. Reasons for Attraction: 5. Complementarity Validation: Sharing common Definition: Complementarity occurs when beliefs reinforces one’s worldview, one partner’s traits fill a need or gap in making a person feel understood the other partner’s personality. and supported. Reality Check: Ease of Communication: Similar Although complementary qualities individuals are likely to agree on can create initial attraction (e.g., topics and have fewer conflicts, an extrovert admiring an which fosters deeper connections. introvert’s calm demeanor), Likeness-Leads-to-Liking Effect: the similarity is more critical for tendency to like/prefer people whose sustaining relationships. attitudes and behaviors we can predict Research by Berscheid & Reis Consensual Validation: our own (1998) confirms that shared attitudes and behaviors are supported characteristics strengthen bonds and validated when someone else’s more than complementary traits. attitudes and behaviros are similar to ours (i.e People shy away from the 6. Reciprocity of Liking unknown/different) Definition: the tendency to like other Research Insights: people who like us in return Studies by Moreland & Zajonc 7. Relationship Rewards  Definition: the tendency to like those Importance: Companionate love forms who reward us, or whom we associate the foundation of long-term partnerships, with rewards (e.g. we tend to like those such as marriages. who give us gifts) 3. Consummate Love (Triangular Theory of Love) DIFFERENT TYPES OF LOVE Definition: Psychologist Robert Psychologists have identified various types of love, Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love ranging from romantic passion to deep friendship. identifies three components: These distinctions highlight how relationships evolve Intimacy: Emotional closeness over time. and bonding. 1. Romantic or Passionate Love Passion: Physical attraction and Description: Intense emotional and sexual desire. physical attraction, often experienced in Commitment: A decision to the early stages of a romantic maintain the relationship. relationship. Ideal Relationship: Consummate love Characteristics: involves all three components, creating High arousal levels, excitement, a balanced and deeply satisfying and infatuation. connection. Often idealizes the partner, focusing on their positive qualities. Longevity: Passionate love can diminish over time as the relationship matures and ROBERT STERNBERG’S TRIANGULAR THEORY OF shifts into more stable forms of affection. LOVE 2. Companionate Love ROBERT STERNBERG Description: Deep emotional connection Introduced the a Triarchic Theory of and commitment that develops over Intelligence (2003) time. ○ Analytical intelligence - the ability to Characteristics: complete academic, problem-solving Based on trust, mutual respect, tasks, such as those used in traditional and shared experiences. intelligence tests Less intense than passionate love ○ Creative or synthetic intelligence - the but more enduring and fulfilling. ability to successfully deal with new and  unusual situations by drawing on existing and bonding with another person. knowledge and skills Characteristics: ○ Practical intelligence - the ability to Psychological connection, not adapt to everyday life by drawing on physical. existing knowledge and skills Sharing personal thoughts, Introduced the 4 forms of Mental feelings, and experiences. Self-government Found in deep friendships and ○ Hierachic style - holding multiple goals romantic relationships. simultaneously and prioritizes them 2. Passion (Body) ○ Oligarchic style - hodling multiple goals Definition: The physical and emotional simultaneously but prioritizes those that arousal experienced toward another are difficult person. ○ Monarchic style - focusing on a single Characteristics: activity until completion Includes sexual attraction but also ○ Anarchic style - resisting conformity to encompasses physical closeness “sytmes, rules, or particular approaches like hugging or holding hands. to problems” The most intense in the early stages of romantic relationships. ROBERT STERNBERG’S TRIANGULAR THEORY OF 3. Commitment (Spirit) LOVE Definition: Cognitive appraisal of the Provides a framework to understand the relationship and the decision to maintain complex nature of love. a relationship over time. Identifies three core components of Characteristics: love—intimacy, passion, and commitment—and Can be short-term (e.g., deciding shows how their combinations create various to date someone) or long-term types of love. (e.g., deciding to marry). A relationship based on a single element is Essential for stability and enduring less likely to survive than one based on 2 or 3 relationships. elements THE SEVEN FORMS OF LOVE Sternberg’s theory outlines how different combinations THE THREE COMPONENTS OF LOVE of these three components result in various types of 1. Intimacy (Mind) love: Definition: Emotional closeness, sharing, 1. Liking (Intimacy Only)  Emotional closeness without passion or friendship (“hollywood romance”, commitment. chatroom relationship). Example: Close friendships. 7. Consummate Love (Intimacy + Passion + 2. Infatuation (Passion Only) Commitment) Intense attraction without intimacy or The ideal form of love that includes all commitment. three components. Example: A crush or fling, one night Example: A deeply connected, physically stands, extra-marital affairs. passionate, and committed partnership 3. Empty Love (Commitment Only) (leading to marriage). Commitment without intimacy or passion. Example: Arranged marriages that start APPLICATIONS ACROSS CULTURES with commitment but lack emotional or Romantic Love: Common in Western cultures, physical connection. where relationships often start with passion and 4. Romantic Love (Intimacy + Passion) intimacy, evolving into commitment. Emotional closeness combined with Companionate Love: More common in cultures physical attraction but no long-term where arranged marriages or pragmatic commitment. partnerships are the norm. In these cases, Example: Dating relationships or early compatibility is prioritized, and intimacy may stages of romantic connections develop over time. (“idealized” love). 5. Companionate Love (Intimacy + EVOLVING LOVE: FROM CONSUMMATE TO Commitment) COMPANIONATE Strong emotional bond and commitment Relationships often transition from consummate without physical passion. love to companionate love over time as Example: Long-term marriages or deep passion naturally diminishes. friendships where passion has faded but Emotional intimacy and commitment help emotional and partnership ties remain sustain relationships during challenges like (love between old couples). raising children or managing daily 6. Fatuous Love (Passion + Commitment) responsibilities. Physical attraction and commitment without deep emotional intimacy. Example: Quick marriages based on attraction but without a foundation of  AGGRESSION Studies on twins suggest a hereditary component to aggressive temperaments, People have a tendency to either behave negatively or particularly among identical twins. positively toward other people. When behavior is Brain Structures: negative, it can become violent. But sometimes the The amygdala, frontal lobes, and limbic choice is to act to help others rather than hurt them, system play roles in regulating and the next section discusses the differences between aggression. those two extremes. Abnormalities, such as tumors affecting these areas, can heighten aggression. AGGRESSION Hormones and Neurochemicals: Defined as behavior intended to harm or High levels of testosterone are linked to destroy another person, either physically or aggressive behavior, especially in young verbally. males. Arises from various biological, psychological, Low serotonin levels may also contribute and social influences. to increased aggression. Alcohol: THEORIES OF AGGRESSION Reduces inhibitions and lowers Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis: serotonin, leading to a higher likelihood Aggression often stems from frustration, of aggressive actions. which occurs when individuals are blocked from achieving their goals. LEARNED AGGRESSION External irritants, such as pain, noise, or Social Learning Theory: heat, can intensify frustration and lead to Aggression can be learned by observing aggression. and imitating aggressive behaviors Instinctive Theories: modeled by parents, peers, or media. Sigmund Freud viewed aggression as an Role of Social Roles: inherent "death instinct." Adopting specific roles, such as a prison Konrad Lorenz argued that aggression guard or soldier, can encourage evolved as a survival mechanism to aggressive behavior. For example: protect resources and offspring. Stanford Prison Experiment (1971): College students assigned BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES ON AGGRESSION the role of guards displayed Genetics: increasingly abusive behavior  toward prisoners within days. risk. Examples include: A passerby saving a stranger from a burning MEDIA VIOLENCE AND AGGRESSION car. Television and Video Games: Donating a kidney to a stranger. Studies consistently show that exposure Evolutionary Perspective: to violent media correlates with increased Sociobiologists argue that altruistic behavior aggression in children and adolescents. may have evolved as a way to ensure the Violent video games, in particular, are survival of one's genes, even if it comes at a linked to higher levels of verbal, physical, personal cost. For example: and emotional aggression. Parents risk their lives to save their However, correlation does not imply children. causation; aggressive individuals may Animals exhibit behaviors that protect gravitate toward violent media. close relatives, ensuring the continuation of shared genetic material. Neurological Basis: Brain studies suggest that altruistic individuals have a larger temporoparietal junction (TPJ), PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR particularly in the right hemisphere. This area is more active when individuals face decisions that PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR involve personal sacrifice for the benefit of The counterpart to aggression others. Involves actions intended to help others rather than harm them. FACTORS INFLUENCING HELPING BEHAVIOR Understanding the dynamics of aggression can The Bystander Effect: inform strategies to encourage prosocial Definition: The likelihood of an individual actions, such as modeling positive behaviors helping decreases as the number of and fostering empathy. bystanders increases. Famous Cases: ALTRUISM: A SPECIAL FORM OF PROSOCIAL Kitty Genovese (1964): Despite 38 BEHAVIOR witnesses hearing or seeing parts of the Altruism is a specific type of prosocial behavior where assault, no one intervened in time to save individuals help others with no expectation of her. personal reward and often at significant personal  LaShanda Calloway (2007): Shoppers less likely to feel a personal duty to act. stepped over a stabbing victim without 4. Know How to Help: offering help; one even stopped to take a Without the necessary skills or knowledge photo. (e.g., first aid training), individuals may Explanation: In large groups, responsibility is hesitate to assist. perceived as shared among the crowd, making 5. Decide to Act: individuals less likely to act. Fear of making a mistake, legal Diffusion of Responsibility: consequences, or personal harm may Definition: When multiple people are present, prevent action. individuals feel less personal responsibility to take action, assuming someone else will step in. ADDITIONAL INFLUENCES ON HELPING Examples: BEHAVIOR "I thought someone else had already 1. Mood: called the police." People in good moods are more likely to In experiments, participants were less help because positive emotions increase likely to report smoke or help a distressed awareness of others' needs. individual when in groups compared to Paradoxically, individuals may avoid when alone. helping if they believe it will ruin their Decision Model for Helping (Darley & Latané, 1968): good mood. Helping behavior is influenced by a series of cognitive 2. Victim Characteristics: steps: Gender: Women are more likely to 1. Notice the Event: The individual must first receive help than men, especially from become aware that something is happening. male bystanders. Distractions or being preoccupied reduce Physical Attractiveness: Attractive the likelihood of noticing. individuals are more likely to be helped 2. Interpret the Event as an Emergency: due to societal biases. Ambiguity in the situation (e.g., a loud Deservingness: Victims perceived as argument vs. a genuine attack) responsible for their plight (e.g., a "drunk" decreases the likelihood of intervention. individual) are less likely to receive help. People often rely on others' reactions to 3. Similarity to Helper: gauge whether the situation is serious. People are more inclined to assist those 3. Assume Responsibility: they perceive as similar to themselves When others are present, individuals are  (e.g., shared race, ethnicity, or cultural having a seizure. background). Findings: 4. Cultural and Social Norms: Alone: 85% sought help. Collectivist cultures often emphasize With four other participants: helping within the group but may show Only 31% helped. less altruism toward outsiders. Conclusion: The more bystanders, the Individualistic cultures may stress lower the likelihood of helping. personal responsibility, leading to variable levels of prosocial behavior. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS 5. Role of Training: 1. Encouraging Intervention: Bystanders with specific skills, such as Educating people about the bystander CPR training, are significantly more likely effect can increase awareness and to intervene in emergencies. proactive behavior. Training programs (e.g., CPR or bystander SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY EXPERIMENTS ON HELPING intervention) empower individuals to feel BEHAVIOR capable of helping. 1. The Smoke-Filled Room Experiment (Latané & 2. Reducing Ambiguity: Darley, 1968): Victims should directly address Participants in a room noticed smoke bystanders, making their need for help pouring in. explicit (e.g., “You in the blue shirt, call Findings: 911!”). Alone: 75% reported the smoke. 3. Cultural Change: With two other participants: Only Promoting social norms that encourage 38% reported the smoke. responsibility and altruism can reduce the With two confederates ignoring diffusion of responsibility. the smoke: Only 10% reported the smoke. Conclusion: The presence of others reduces individual responsibility and PEEKING INSIDE THE SOCIAL BRAIN action. 2. Seizure Experiment (Darley & Latané, 1968): WHAT IS SOCIAL NEUROSCIENCE? Participants overheard a confederate Social neuroscience is a multidisciplinary field that explores the neural, hormonal, and physiological mechanisms underlying social behaviors and (Chang et al., 2013). Human interactions. It examines how our brains and bodies decisions about sharing are likely function during various social activities, bridging the even more complex, involving gap between social psychology and biological empathy, self-control, and moral sciences. reasoning. KEY BRAIN STRUCTURES INVOLVED IN SOCIAL APPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL NEUROSCIENCE BEHAVIOR 1. Understanding Disorders with Impaired 1. Temporoparietal Junction (TPJ): Social Functioning: Location: At the intersection of the Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): temporal and parietal lobes. Individuals with ASD often Role in Prosocial Behavior: struggle with social cues and Studies using fMRI have shown empathy. Studying the neural that the TPJ is more active during mechanisms involved in social decisions involving altruism, processing could shed light on especially when personal sacrifice these impairments and lead to is required (Morishima et al., 2012). better interventions. Role in Predicting Behavior: Neurodegenerative Diseases: The TPJ is activated when Disorders like Alzheimer’s, predicting the actions of another Parkinson’s, and Huntington’s human opponent, but not a disease often lead to diminished computer opponent, indicating its social abilities. Social neuroscience role in understanding social aims to uncover how these intentions and strategic thinking conditions affect the brain regions (Carter et al., 2012). involved in social functioning. 2. Prefrontal Cortex: Psychological Disorders: Location: The frontal region of the brain, Conditions like depression, responsible for higher-order cognitive anxiety, and personality disorders functions. frequently involve disruptions in Role in Sharing and Decision-Making: social behavior. Understanding Research on primates shows that how these behaviors are linked to sharing behavior involves multiple brain acti