SOC Ch.1.docx

SOC Ch.1-Thinking Like a Sociologist The selected text discusses the social nature of humans. It emphasizes that humans have a desire to belong to a community and often conform to the norms of their community. This can be seen in behaviors such as using specific visual cues or slang in a selfie to s...

SOC Ch.1-Thinking Like a Sociologist The selected text discusses the social nature of humans. It emphasizes that humans have a desire to belong to a community and often conform to the norms of their community. This can be seen in behaviors such as using specific visual cues or slang in a selfie to signal belonging to a particular group. At the same time, humans also tend to exclude those who are not part of their community and compete with other communities. These behaviors reflect the pressures to conform and the potential punishments for non-conformity within a community. Diefenbach and Christoforakos (2017) write that there is a “selfie bias”- a tendency to view our own selfies as ironic and not fully committed, allowing us to showcase ourselves without feeling narcissistic. However, this practice may have negative effects, as research suggests that frequent posting of selfies can increase social sensitivity and lower self-esteem. The creation of selfies is driven by two dynamics: the desire to innovate and to imitate. While a selfie may resemble many others, making it imitative, unique elements such as a specific expression, phrasing, or filter add a touch of innovation. However, this innovation stays within an acceptable range to ensure social acceptance. In essence, we innovate to remain included, but within limits to avoid exclusion. The text discusses the central role of inclusion and exclusion dynamics in sociology. It highlights how people in communities and societies interact, learn from each other, and influence each other’s behavior. It also emphasizes the importance of cooperation, competition, reward, and punishment in shaping these interactions. These behaviors, both inclusive and exclusive, are manifested through interactions between individuals and groups. In short, as we will see throughout this book, almost everything you think, say, and do is social. However innovative your actions may be, they are also imitative. However hard you may try to separate yourself from one group of people, you are usually also aiming to connect yourself with another group of people. The text emphasizes that while we often view our problems as deeply personal, many of these issues are shared by others. It encourages us to consider broader societal forces that influence our lives. Common challenges such as academic pressure, student debt, and career uncertainty are not unique but are experienced by many students. When problems that seem individual are widely shared by a similar group, it’s time to think like a sociologist. As you will see, there are large social forces that are shaping your own life and every other human life. To see them, you need to activate your sociological imagination. The Sociological Imagination and Sociology’s Beginnings C. Wright Mills and the Sociological Imagination The sociological imagination, a concept introduced by American sociologist C. Wright Mills in 1959, is a critical tool in sociology and defined it as “vivid awareness of the relationship between personal experience and the wider society”. It’s not a theory, but an approach that helps us link our personal experiences to wider societal contexts. It encourages us to view our own society in comparison to others and understand the influence of history on present-day society. This perspective is essential for effective sociological analysis. The sociological imagination, as described by Mills (1959), is a perspective that encourages us to connect various aspects of social life, from large-scale societal structures to individual experiences. It pushes us to view our personal experiences objectively and understand how they are influenced by various social, cultural, economic, political, and environmental contexts. This perspective helps us see society as the collective result of individuals navigating their personal lives, thereby shaping society, and contributing to its evolution. Our actions are often shaped by invisible norms and values that exist in every society. These norms and values, which can change over time, guide us to behave in ways that seek social approval. Our actions occur within a specific social context that influences our choices. Furthermore, our actions not only impact others but also contribute to shaping and changing society. Developing a sociological imagination involves shifting our perspective and questioning common beliefs. It requires us to view the world from a new angle, stepping outside our cultural and social conditioning. This process often involves challenging widely accepted truths and detaching from personal experiences and assumptions. In essence, it’s a tool that allows us to see beyond our individual perspective and understand broader societal contexts. The sociological imagination, as conceptualized by C. Wright Mills, encourages sociologists to empathize with individuals disadvantaged by societal norms, values, and structures, and to advocate for social justice. Without this perspective, Mills believed people could become apathetic, losing their ability to empathize with human suffering and injustices, or to critique political leaders effectively. They might resort to blaming disadvantaged individuals or offering individual solutions, rather than seeking systemic changes. The sociological imagination is a critical tool in sociology, going beyond mere critical thinking. It involves viewing society as a complex network of individual lives interacting and evolving over time. This perspective can make the world more vibrant and helps you see your life in new, intriguing, and thought-provoking ways. Understanding sociology also means seeing the general in particular cases. By this, sociologist Peter Berger (1963) meant looking at seemingly unique individual events or circumstances and finding patterns and trends that might point to broader forces at work. A key concept in sociology, which involves seeing the general in particular cases. This idea, proposed by sociologist Peter Berger in 1963, suggests that by examining individual events or circumstances that may seem unique, we can identify patterns and trends that indicate broader societal forces at work. In other words, individual experiences are not isolated incidents but are often influenced by larger social structures and phenomena. This approach allows sociologists to understand how larger societal forces shape individual experiences and behaviors. It’s a fundamental aspect of sociological analysis, emphasizing the interconnectedness of individual and societal dynamics. The text suggests that while marriage is a unique event, it’s also one of many lives transitions a person undergoes, like graduation, starting a first job, becoming a parent, getting divorced, retiring, or experiencing widowhood. Overall, these transitions significantly alter a person’s lifestyle, social connections, opportunities, challenges, and self-perception. The text emphasizes the importance of sociological imagination in understanding societal norms, using the example of marriage. It suggests that sociologists should question the familiar and ordinary aspects of life to gain deeper insights. For instance, questioning why, when, and to whom someone chooses to get married can reveal significant information about their circumstances. This approach of seeing the ‘strange in the familiar’ can be enhanced by experiences like travelling abroad, which expose us to different social and cultural norms. With the help of both techniques—seeing the general in the particular and the strange in the familiar—we use our sociological imagination to connect personal troubles to public issues. The Beginnings of Sociology as a Discipline The modern study of sociology began two to three centuries ago, during the Age of Enlightenment. This era, which spanned from approximately 1650 to 1850, was a significant period in European life, characterized by advancements in philosophy, intellect, science, and culture. The Enlightenment promoted secular institutions, the rule of law, free economic markets, and mass literacy. It also fostered a shift away from despotic political power, religious superstition, and traditional hierarchies, while advocating for science. In the early nineteenth century, armed with knowledge of Enlightenment thinking and its effects on traditional social life, sociologists began to develop a science of society. Through evidence-based theories, they thought that people would be able to build better communities in the future. These ambitions are obvious in the writings of sociology’s three founding figures: Émile Durkheim, Karl Marx, and Max Weber THEORY IN EVERYDAY LIFE | Founders of Sociology Émile Durkheim, born in France in 1858, was a Jew in an anti-Semitic European world, pursued an academic career instead of becoming a rabbi like his father. He completed his doctoral thesis, “The Division of Labor in Society”, in 1893 and his seminal work, “Suicide”, in 1897. Durkheim’s work on suicide established sociology as an academic discipline. He proposed the sociological method, which emphasizes the study of “social facts” as external realities. Durkheim argued that suicide reveals social patterns, such as variations in incidence according to gender, age, religion, marital status, location, and period. He criticized non-sociological explanations of suicide that relied on suicide notes or family accounts. Karl Marx, also born a Jew in Prussia in 1818, moved to Paris in 1843 where he met Friedrich Engels. They joined the Communist League and published the Manifesto of the Communist Party in 1848 (also known as The Communist Manifesto). Marx and Engels argued that capitalism, which divides society into the bourgeoisie (controllers of production) and the proletariat (workers), would inevitably collapse, ending social inequality and class conflict. Soon after, Marx and Engels moved to London for their own safety. Marx’s views continued to win him both admiration and persecution for the rest of his life. Max Weber, born in Germany in 1864, made significant contributions to sociology across various topics including politics, science, religion, law, economics, and more. His most notable work, “The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism”, posits that religious beliefs played a key role in the divergent economic development of the West and East. His final work, “General Economic History” (1923), encapsulates his unique interpretations of economic change. Weber explored the various ways social groups gained power in societies, both modern and historical, recognizing that a group’s relationship to the means of production was just one of many sources of power. The text highlights the significant contributions of various sociologists, particularly women, to the foundation of sociology. Despite facing marginalization due to sexism and racism, these figures played crucial roles in shaping the discipline. Harriet Martineau, for instance, critiqued social injustices in her work “Society in America” in 1837. She criticized the social injustices that women, slaves, and the working poor often experienced. Here and in other work, she stressed the importance of seeing the role of political, religious, and social institutions in promoting inequality. Dorothy Smith, a prominent Canadian sociologist, explored how one’s societal position influences their perception of society. Other notable Canadian women sociologists include Grace Anderson, Jean Burnet, Kathleen Herman, Helen McGill Hughes, Thelma McCormack, and Aileen Ross. As another significant woman Canadian sociologist, Margrit Eichler (2001) tells us, “All were born before 1930 [and] encountered significant sexism,” yet all found jobs easily. Eichler continues, “Three of the four women whose formative years in sociology were in the 1940s and 1950s … did not consider themselves feminists, although all of them did significant work on women.” This means they were able to make substantial contributions to sociology despite their gender. Racialized individuals have significantly contributed to the development of sociology. W.E.B. Du Bois focused on the impacts of slavery and racial discrimination in early 20th century American society. Frantz Fanon, the great North African thinker, and psychoanalyst explored how colonization influences both the colonizer and the colonized. Orlando Patterson, a Jamaican-born sociologist, produced award-winning works on freedom and slavery in the U.S. and Jamaica. Ibn Khaldun, the earliest and most overlooked racialized sociologist, his work dated to the 14th century, and he studied social cohesion in various communities and proposed a cyclical theory of nations and empires, like Émile Durkheim’s work five centuries later. The birth of sociology was influenced by social and cultural changes between 1650 and 1850, particularly during the Enlightenment. This period, characterized by secularism, scientific exploration, and opposition to aristocracy, spurred the Industrial Revolution, capitalism, scientific thinking, and democratic republicanism. These rapid changes led to significant social consequences, including the erosion of traditional rules, increased inequality between employers and workers, and the emergence of new forms of work organization like bureaucracy. The Enlightenment period led thinkers like Herbert Spencer and Henri de Saint-Simon to envision a social evolution where rational thought would prevail over nonrational beliefs. However, nonrational elements such as religious faith persisted even with the rise of science. Founding sociologists like Weber and Marx recognized the social and political significance of these nonrational beliefs. Weber noted that religious belief could contribute to orderly change, while Marx criticized religion for suppressing intellectual growth and rebellion yet acknowledged its political relevance. Later Marxists, particularly those in the Frankfurt School, further explored the significance of nonrational beliefs in religion, media, and culture. Science and technology have played a crucial role in the development of sociology. Karl Marx’s scholarship was rooted in the transformative power of productive technologies and their impact on class structure. There’s a deep compatibility between technological change and the rise of sociology, as both aim to improve or better understand the everyday lives of ordinary people through scientific investigation and knowledge application. The growth of universities and academic sociology was facilitated by the prosperity and structured learning brought about by science and technology. In turn, sociology embraced this new opportunity. Throughout what some have called the golden age of technology (roughly 1870 to 1940), sociology explored ways to solve the social problems associated with industrialization and modernization. In this period, Weber wrote about the rise of science, Durkheim about the rise of modern industrial relations, and Marx about the socially transformative role of technology in work relations. Sociology has deep roots in the humanities, including social and moral philosophy, and history. It draws from the works of those who critiqued the Enlightenment, arguing against the complete dismissal of tradition. These thinkers valued preindustrial, prescientific, and religious values, and lamented the loss of community, authority, custom, ritual, and personal certainties that accompanied societal changes. Foundational Concepts of Sociology The text discusses the unique approach of sociology compared to other social sciences. While all social sciences deal with concepts like culture, power, and value, sociology’s primary focus is on the relationships among individuals and groups in a society. These relationships, when they form a consistent pattern of behavior, are referred to as a social structure. This focus on social structure is a distinguishing feature of sociology. Social Structure and Culture The text discusses the concept of social structure, which is crucial as it shapes and constrains people’s behavior. Social structure dictates the way people act in different situations, leading them to follow set patterns of behavior, such as being quiet and polite at a religious service. However, the same individuals may behave differently in other contexts, like being noisy at a sports stadium. Thus, for sociologists, situation is (almost) everything because social structure dictates so much of social life. In sociology, culture is a critical concept that refers to a set of values and beliefs shaping our perception of reality, varying significantly across societies and over time. The principle of cultural relativism in sociology accepts human diversity and understands that behaviors and practices vary across cultures. It encourages sociologists to consider fundamental differences in worldviews and behaviors, even within a single culture at different times. The dynamic nature of culture makes sociology complex and fascinating, as it involves understanding the shared beliefs, values, norms, and social practices that define a society, influence individuals’ behavior, and evolve over time. For example, behavior at religious services and sports stadiums, for example, can vary widely from one culture to another, as well as within a culture at different points in that culture’s history. This also means that from a sociological standpoint, it is not useful to view human nature as unchanging and that certain cultures are better/more advanced than other cultures. The selected text discusses the concept of socialization. It explains that humans learn how to behave through socialization, which begins in early childhood and continues throughout life. We human beings spend the first five years of our lives trying to understand the norms, values, attitudes, and beliefs that are a part of our society. Then comes what sociologists call secondary socialization, which includes socialization at school, at work, through the media, and elsewhere. This process involves understanding societal norms, values, attitudes, and beliefs. As individuals learn these norms and fulfill role expectations, they become more integrated into society. Socialization also occurs when individuals move through different roles and life stages or change geographical locations. This process helps newcomers adapt to a new society. Note that these assumptions about social structure are precisely opposite to those that underlie genetics research and psychology. According to those fields, people don’t change much from one situation to another, and they are fundamentally different from one another in unbridgeable ways. However, sociology holds that people vary their behaviour from one situation to another and throughout their lives. The text emphasizes that even deeply personal emotions and actions are influenced by social structures. We learn how to express and suppress our feelings based on societal norms. The sociological approach to suicide, as demonstrated by Durkheim, shows that even intensely personal decisions like suicide are influenced by social factors. For instance, divorced individuals, particularly men without children, are more prone to suicide than married individuals with children. This leads to questions about the societal roles of marriage and parenthood, and how they might vary across different cultures. Behind all our choices, no matter how deeply personal they may seem on the surface, is what we call social structure: that set of often-invisible rules that regulates how we behave and that transforms and constrains us in different social situations. People interact with one another and, in doing so regularly, create and preserve this social structure together. Social Institutions A social institution, such as a school, is a structured assembly of various social relationships. It comprises different groups like teachers, students, administrators, and custodial staff, each with distinct roles and rules. Everyone within the institution understands their own and others’ roles, rights, and responsibilities. For instance, teachers are aware of their obligations and rights concerning students, and vice versa. In social structures, individuals have defined positions known as statuses, which dictate how they should interact with others. For instance, being a teacher or a student is a status in an educational institution. Roles are the patterns of interaction associated with a status. For example, the actions performed by a teacher constitute a role. Role expectations are the societal norms about how individuals should perform their roles. These roles and statuses, which we adopt or are assigned, shape our behaviors and are a key part of social structure. Social relationships, like those between students and teachers, are stable due to several factors. Humans value stability and can feel confusion and distress when they experience social uncertainty. Often, this also means that we lack knowledge or courage in changing relationships. Additionally, those in power often prefer to maintain the status quo. These factors contribute to the preservation of societal relationships. Social roles and relationships come into existence only when we perform them through interaction with others. Interaction involves various forms of communication and a lot of negotiation, as people try to understand each other and meet each other’s expectations. These interactions, often hidden or habitual, are crucial in making roles and relationships function, forming the working parts of social structure. In essence, our behaviors and relationships are shaped and maintained through continuous interaction and negotiation within the societal framework. This process is integral to the functioning of the social structure. Knowing What We Know Modern sociology is not only about understanding the social world, but also about scrutinizing how we acquire that understanding. Sociologists in the positivist tradition (especially, quantitative) aim to propose and test theories as potential explanations for social events. They seek the most plausible theory by asking hypothetical questions. On the other hand, sociologists who focus on qualitative and historical analysis aim to propose and scrutinize explanations of reality. Sociologists approach their studies with caution, using either quantitative or qualitative research methods. They don’t rely on “common sense” which often consists of unverified beliefs and superstitions. Instead, they seek scientifically sound explanations based on empirical evidence, following a systematic research process. The text emphasizes the influence of social structure on people’s lives. It suggests that a person’s social class at birth often determines their wealth as an adult. This also means that financial circumstances cannot be merely attributed to personal characteristics like intelligence, values, or work ethic alone. This highlights the significant role of societal structures in shaping individual life outcomes. The selected text discusses the Whitehall Studies, which examined the social determinants of health over a 10-year period beginning in 1967. They examined data on 18,000 British civil servants and found that a person’s position in the civil service hierarchy significantly influenced their health and longevity. Those lower in the hierarchy had shorter, less healthy lives than those in higher positions. This was not due to poverty, but rather unequal rank, which led to higher rates of heart disease among lower-ranking employees. The studies concluded that social inequality leads to stress, which in turn triggers the long-term release of cortisol, a chemical that raises blood pressure and weakens the immune system. This highlights that health is not just an individual issue but is strongly affected by social factors. 1.2| The Social Determinants of Health The text discusses the social determinants of health, a topic extensively studied by social scientists. Research has shown that the most vulnerable individuals, such as the elderly, ethnic minorities, and the poor, are often the most affected in any disaster or disease outbreak. Michael Marmot emphasizes that social stratification is a crucial factor in health inequalities. He asserts that while other explanations for health disparities exist, evidence strongly supports social causation. This implies that societal factors significantly influence health outcomes, underscoring the political nature of social action. In short, common sense can often misguide us about society. The central goal of sociologists is to replace faulty common-sense reasoning with empirical evidence and scientific explanation. Sociologists do this by conducting research and examining the published results of such research. Armed with this evidence, we are better able to interpret the world around us and evaluate different policy proposals for improving society. Ways of Looking at Sociology Sociologists have divided their field into four main schools of thought, also known as approaches or paradigms. These are: Conflict Theory: This approach focuses on social inequalities and conflicts that arise in society. Feminist Theory: This perspective emphasizes the experiences of women and the impact of gender on social structures. Functional Theory (Functionalism): This approach views society as a system of interconnected parts, each serving a specific function. Symbolic Interactionism: This perspective focuses on the symbolic meanings people develop and rely upon in the process of social interaction. Each approach offers unique insights into societal issues and is explored in various chapters of the book. These paradigms differ in several ways, providing diverse perspectives on sociology. Conflict theory is primarily concerned with the unequal distribution of wealth and power in society. It views society as a collection of groups vying for dominance or at least equal access. The theory focuses on class, gender, sexual orientation, disability, and other factors contributing to inequality. It was described in detail by Randall Collins in his book “Conflict Sociology”: For conflict theory, the basic insight is that human beings are sociable but conflict-prone animals…. The basic argument, then, has three strands: that men live in self-constructed subjective worlds; that others pull many of the strings that control one’s subjective experience; and that there are frequent conflicts over control. (pp. 56–61) Conflict theory, inspired by Marx and Weber, posits that social conflict arises from power differences between social classes. Marx’s dialectical materialism approach suggests that class conflicts, driven by material needs, lead to political and historical upheavals. Marx believed that the working class, or proletariat, feeling alienated from their work and its products, must organize to gain control over their work and its profits, ultimately overthrowing capitalism. Given its emphasis on social and economic inequality, the Marxist solution to social problems is to end all class differences through protest and armed revolt. Unlike Marx, Weber focused on sources of power besides class. He also considered the importance of inequalities between contending status groups—for example, between people of different nationalities, religions, ethnic groups, regions, and so on. All these groups fight for power in society, using various tactics to get and keep power. Conflict theorists who follow Marx and Weber differ in their views on the role of cultural ideas in social conflict. Weber believed that ideas, including religious beliefs and economic views, can bring about societal changes. On the other hand, Marx argued that changes in economic relations, not beliefs and views, are what transform societies. According to Marx, capitalist economic relations give rise to a dominant ideology that justifies capitalism and maintains its public support. In other words, Marx saw ideas, beliefs, and ideologies as products of economic relations. Over the past century, Marxism has evolved to acknowledge the influence of ideas in creating social inequality, aligning more with Weber’s emphasis on culture. Neo-Marxist theorists suggest that consumer culture plays a significant role in sustaining capitalism. They also recognize the impact of other elements such as the state, religions, ideologies, mass media, and intellectuals in perpetuating social inequality. John Porter and The Vertical Mosaic A non-Marxist version of conflict theory is obvious in the work of esteemed Canadian sociologist John Porter (1921–1979), author of the classic work The Vertical Mosaic (1965/2015). His work shows us how societies create and control conflict, despite inequalities based on class and ethnicity. “The Vertical Mosaic” is a landmark study that dispels the myth of Canada as a classless society. It reveals that Canadian society, like the U.S., is class-based with a hierarchy defined by wealth and power. However, unlike the U.S. where immigrants are urged to quickly assimilate, Canada is a cultural mosaic with each ethnic group preserving its customs and heritage. The book argues that differences in education and income among immigrant groups perpetuate class disparities. Factors like ethnic self-segregation and discrimination limit opportunities for class advancement. While Canada’s top elite now includes more than just Canadian-born English and French Canadians, economic inequality persists. Racialized minorities, particularly Indigenous people, and Black Canadians, continue to face social and economic disadvantages. The shift from a strict focus on economic relations to include politics and culture underscores the significance of Weber’s ideas. The Frankfurt School: Culture + Politics = Ideology The Frankfurt School of sociologists, including Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, and Walter Benjamin, combined Marxist, and Weberian ideas. They analyzed capitalist ideology, mass consumerism, and popular culture, noting these elements distract the masses from feelings of exploitation and alienation. They collectively viewed culture as a tool used by powerful social groups to maintain their dominance and perpetuate class conflict. In the late 20th century, conflict theory was expanded upon by Ralf Dahrendorf, Lewis Coser, and Randall Collins. Dahrendorf’s influential work, “Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society”, published in 1959, echoed Marx’s view of society as being in a constant state of change and conflict. However, Dahrendorf argued that coercion, not shared norms, and values, is what holds society together. Like Weber, he emphasized the role of legitimate authority as a source of power in society. He suggested that economic classes, elite authority groups, or mobilized status groups could all become catalysts for societal change. This perspective highlights the dynamic and complex nature of societal structures and power relations. Lewis Coser, a conflict theorist, applied Durkheim’s ideas to the study of conflict. He observed that conflict often serves social functions, making it universal and persistent. Under many conditions, groups can remain locked in struggle for long periods without any change, thus preserving the status quo. Equally, long-term struggles can lead to alliances, clarify group boundaries, and promote communication and cooperation, thereby preserving the social order. This perspective suggests that if dialogue continues, even among adversaries, the social order is maintained. In the last three decades, sociologists have developed more modern versions of conflict and critical theory, such as queer theory and critical race theory. Functionalism Functionalism, originating from Durkheim’s work and early anthropology, and as practised from roughly 1900 to 1970, functionalism has morphed into a variety of theories that view society as a system where each part works together to maintain stability and efficiency. Unlike conflict theory, which focuses on societal clashes, functionalism assumes that each part of society, including families, schools, religious institutions, the economy, and government, plays a crucial and complementary role, like the organs in a human body. These different parts cooperate for the survival of society. Functional theory in sociology, which focuses on social integration and cohesion, traces its origins to Émile Durkheim. His works, such as “Suicide” and “The Division of Labour in Society”, highlight this perspective. Durkheim’s essay on the normality of crime illustrates the functionalist approach to explaining the universality of certain activities, like crime, which may initially seem antisocial. In his work “The Elementary Forms of Religious Life”, Durkheim posits that venerated objects and beliefs endure, regardless of their rationality, because they enhance social cohesion. Sociologist Robert Merton developed the functionalist approach by recognizing that social practices can persist even if they don’t achieve their stated objectives, as long as they fulfill their unstated objectives. In his work “Social Theory and Social Structure”, he proposed that all social institutions perform both manifest (intended and recognized) and latent (unstated) functions. For instance, formal education has the manifest purpose of imparting knowledge, skills, and cultural values to students, which is recognized by all participants in the institution. Formal education has both manifest (intended) and latent (unintended) functions. While the manifest function is to impart knowledge and skills, latent functions include providing childcare and offering a social environment where high school and university students can meet potential partners. These latent functions, though often overlooked, are crucial to society. Institutions undergo changes that often lead to unintended consequences in other institutions. For instance, shifts in family dynamics, like rising divorce rates, can unexpectedly impact work and education, and vice versa. In the early 20th century, industrialization and urbanization in North America resulted in increased crime, mental health issues, addiction, and domestic violence. Durkheim coined the term "anomie" to describe the weakening of social norms during periods of rapid social change. From a functionalist perspective, addressing social problems involves reinforcing social norms and promoting social integration, such as within families or communities. Functional theory has evolved into various approaches and sub approaches, particularly in the realm of deviance and crime. In this context, control theories and social learning theories reflect connections to functionalism. Control theories explore how strong social connections to family, peers, school, church, community, and workplace can deter crime by emphasizing the negative consequences for these social ties. They also highlight the learning of self-control processes. Social learning theories, rooted in differential association theory, propose that individuals may learn values and behaviors associated with rule-breaking, valuing criminality over conformity through socialization and rewards. Symbolic Interactionism Functionalism and conflict theory are macro sociological approaches. They study large societal structures like major social institutions and demographic groups. Their focus is on how societies and these large institutions change due to factors such as conflict, legislation, technological innovation, population dynamics, and environmental influences. In contrast, symbolic interactionism is a sociological perspective that focuses on small-group interactions, examining how individuals interact and the meanings, definitions, and interpretations that shape these interactions. Max Weber, considered a progenitor of this approach, along with Georg Simmel, is associated with interpretive sociology (also known as verstehende soziologie). This perspective, influenced by Weber's concept of verstehen, emphasizes understanding social action based on individuals' interpretations of various situations. In symbolic interactionism, social life is seen as constructed by individuals based on their perceptions, differing from the macrosociology of Durkheim and Marx. This approach questions the meaning people attach to behavior, views social reality as a constantly constructed and revised concept, and often relies on qualitative data rather than quantitative data. Thus, it is through face-to-face, symbol-using interaction that people build reality together. Ordinary people change society every day in ways so slight they are often hard to see. SOCIOLOGY 2.0 | Online Gaming and Social Construction Japanese doctor Susumu Higuchi expresses concern about the mental health risks associated with online gaming, citing epidemiological studies indicating a prevalence of internet gaming disorder among youthful gamers. To address this issue, the World Health Organization undertook a four-year process to explore the public health implications of gaming and define gaming disorder in the eleventh edition of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-11). According to ICD-11, gaming disorder is diagnosed when an individual exhibits a lack of control over gaming habits, prioritizes gaming over other interests, and continues gaming despite negative consequences for at least 12 months. However, critics, including gaming industry associations and some mental health professionals, argue that including this disorder in ICD-11 is premature. They suggest it might lead to overdiagnosis, contribute to moral panic about online gaming, and stigmatize gamers. This raises a sociological question of under what conditions governments are likely to construct online gaming as a genuine social/health problem and regulate the use of these websites by young people? Social constructionism, stemming from symbolic interactionism, aims to explore how individuals interact to collectively shape a shared social reality. Alfred Schutz, an early thinker in this field, influenced subsequent generations of phenomenologists and ethnomethodologists. Notably, Peter Berger, a prominent sociologist, drew inspiration from Schutz and developed the influential social construction theory. This theory elucidates how externalization, objectification, and internalization processes contribute to the collaborative construction of social reality. Social constructionists focus on central questions related to the creation of rules, roles, meanings, scripts, and beliefs that shape social interactions. They inquire into the influence of powerful individuals in constructing a "reality" that dictates specific behaviors, often to their own advantage. The key inquiries include understanding who establishes these constructs and the strategies employed to bring about a social order that imposes constraints on individuals. For example, sociologist Howard Becker (1963) asked why and how people came to think that marijuana smoking was dangerous while tobacco smoking was not. While those in power have a greater ability to shape social rules, everyone possesses agency and the ability to choose whether to adhere to or break these rules. Despite this agency, individuals often ignore or violate social rules, particularly those not strongly supported, enforced, or reiterated in everyday interactions. In face-to-face relationships, people negotiate the extent and way they deviate from agreed-upon behavioral patterns. These negotiations can be formal, involving contracts between entities like unions and employers, or more informal, relying on verbal or non-verbal communication. For instance, the negotiation of expectations regarding sex on a first date may involve various forms of informal communication such as gestures, body language, or symbols like clothing or condoms. When individuals break social rules, deviate from agreements, or fail to meet social expectations, they are often labeled as deviants. However, this labeling doesn't inherently imply the person is at fault or will face consequences. In the sociological context, questions arise when assessing allegations of deviance: Who is making the accusations, and who are they accusing? What specific actions are being alleged? Will others believe these accusations and consider them significant? Additionally, sociological inquiry delves into the role of power relations in shaping the outcomes of such situations. Labeling someone as deviant can lead to enduring and detrimental consequences. It might result in secondary deviation, where individuals exhibit abnormal behavior because they believe fate has predetermined them to be incapable of following societal rules. Additionally, being labeled as deviant may prompt individuals to associate with other rule-breakers in a deviant subculture. This process can further contribute to their identification with deviant behavior and subvert adherence to societal norms. Thus, labeling someone as deviant can result in harm, described by Pierre Bourdieu as symbolic violence. Symbolic violence refers to nonphysical harm or violence imposed by the powerful on the powerless using ideology and labels. This may lead to exclusion, ridicule, or other forms of harm for those lacking power. Feminism Feminist sociology, rooted in feminist theory, predates other sociological schools of thought. Various versions of feminist theory exist, such as liberal feminism, antiracist feminism, socialist feminism, radical feminism, ecofeminism, among others. Despite differences, all feminist perspectives share a common focus on addressing gender inequality and the dominance of women by men. Feminists generally focus on examining how gender differences impact the lives of women and nonbinary individuals compared to men. They observe that societal expectations often dictate specific gender roles based on assigned birth genders, influencing various aspects of life such as home, work, and public interactions. Deviating from these prescribed roles can result in exclusion or violence, particularly for women, especially in more patriarchal environments where male dominance is pronounced. The early feminist movement emerged in the late 19th century, leading to the granting of voting rights to white women in many Western countries. Initial feminist approaches, including liberal and Marxist/socialist feminisms, concentrated on changing policies and institutions that treated women differently from men. In contemporary times, feminism emphasizes the diversity of women's experiences within various nationalities, classes, and racial or ethnic groups. Present-day feminists prioritize intersectionality, a concept coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw, which explores the interconnectedness of social disadvantages related to ethnicity, class, and gender. This perspective acknowledges the complexity of systems of oppression and disadvantage. For instance, it recognizes that the challenges faced by Black cis-men, impoverished lesbians, and Muslim immigrant women may differ, but all warrant equal consideration within the feminist discourse. Feminists reject the idea that biological gender differences warrant distinct social roles and responsibilities. They assert that culture, ideology, social structures, and economic relations, rather than biology, are responsible for subordinating women. While feminists may differ in their approaches to achieving change, they share a common commitment to eliminating gender-based social inequality. Additionally, despite variations among women due to factors like class, ethnic identity, and age, feminists generally agree on general principles: all personal life has a political element (or, as C. Wright Mills has written, personal troubles are the private side of public issues). both the public and private spheres of life are gendered (that is, unequal based on perceived gender); despite important differences among women, women’s social experiences often differ from men’s, and nonbinary experiences differ from those of both men and women. patriarchy—or male control—structures the way most societies work. because of many different experiences and differences in power, women, nonbinary people, and men often view the world differently. patriarchy promotes violence in society, mostly targeting women, although sometimes also other men and boys. The term "patriarchy," as defined by the Oxford Dictionary of Sociology, initially referred to social systems centered on the authority of male heads of households. Over time, in certain feminist theories, it has taken on a broader meaning, representing male domination in general. Patriarchy is identified as a significant source of inequality and gender oppression across various social institutions, making its eradication challenging. The psychological effects of gender can be as detrimental as social and economic effects, particularly in terms of damaging self-esteem. A notable example is found in gendered video games and misogynistic gamers, where many games depict women in misogynistic and sexually objectifying manners, often endorsing homophobic, racist, and Islamophobic perspectives. DIGITAL DIVIDE 1.4 | Gamergate The gaming industry faces criticism from academics for socially harmful depictions of women, minorities, and violence. In 2014, gamers protested these “outsiders” who they felt were threatening gamer culture (Hathaway, 2014). Zoe Quinn, a game developer, faced severe harassment after her game Depression Quest received positive reviews from the magazine Kotaku, with false allegations from her ex-boyfriend, Eron Gjoni, who asserted that Quinn received these reviews by having affairs with multiple game journalists. This led to a severe backlash, including doxxing and threats, forcing Quinn to leave her home. Another critic, Anita Sarkeesian, highlighted stereotypical portrayals of women in video games; encouraging critical consumption of entertainment. Like Quinn, this led to her also becoming a target of #Gamergate with doxxing and death threats. Critics of #Gamergate's argue the harsh response reflects the toxicity within gaming and tech culture. Social Theories in Real Life Sociological theory undergoes continuous evolution and development, mirroring trends seen in other scientific disciplines. This dynamic nature by the frequency of citations by professional sociologists for various published sociological articles in sociological journals. Citation data from the Web of Science database is utilized for this analysis. Firstly, there is minimal continuity in the articles sociologists cite most frequently from one decade to the next. This lack of consistency is attributed to the emergence of new discoveries, theories, and perspectives applied to existing issues. Secondly, even the most frequently cited articles are referenced in the hundreds, not thousands, over a decade. This indicates that sociology is a diverse and fragmented discipline, with various sociologists adopting distinct approaches to problems and, consequently, citing different theoretical articles. Thirdly, an examination of the most frequently cited papers reveals that few, if any, explicitly identify their approach as functionalist, conflict, symbolic interactionist, or feminist. This is because actual sociologists engaged in research tend to integrate various theoretical approaches. Many sociological theories in practice defy clear classification boundaries discussed in this chapter, as researchers often combine and incorporate elements from different perspectives. It's evident that only a few select sociological journals have published the most frequently cited articles, underscoring their significant impact on the global field of sociology. These journals are influential in shaping the direction of sociological theory and steering the discipline in specific trajectories. While other important journals within subfields contribute to theoretical development, certain foundational figures consistently capture the attention of sociologists worldwide across decades. It's notable that all the most frequently cited sociologists in Figure 1.3 are white men, indicating a noteworthy aspect of power dynamics within journal publishing and academia. This pattern reflects historical exclusions of women and racialized individuals from respected academic, scientific, and artistic circles. However, there is a positive trend as such exclusions have been rapidly breaking down in sociology and other academic fields. In essence, "real-life sociology" refers to the evolving theories produced and tested by living sociologists in their work. Sociology undergoes continuous change, with shifts in the demographics (genders, classes, locations) of notable sociologists. Sociologists further specialize into subfields like gerontology, politics, or crime, where they engage in reading and citing each other's work. Skills Gained from Studying Sociology Studying sociology offers four key benefits: Currency: It keeps you informed about the world and current events. Concepts: It introduces you to key sociological ideas. Classics: It exposes you to classic sociological theories and texts. Context: It helps you understand the societal context of various phenomena. Even if you don’t plan to become a professional sociologist, these benefits can enhance your understanding of the world around you. Sociology provides concepts, which are abstract ideas or general notions, to understand the world. These concepts, the building blocks of theories and explanations, are developed by comparing different situations and drawing general conclusions. Thus, sociology equips you with general ideas to understand and explain new situations as they arise. Studying sociology provides insights into classic thinking and important works from the past. It reveals that people were theorizing about current problems even a century ago. Knowledge of these classic works can guide your own exploration if you decide to delve deeper into sociology. Sociology provides the necessary context or background for understanding any issue or situation. This context can involve historical facts, economic and political forces, and even insights from fields like psychology or environmentalism. Sociology is a cross-disciplinary approach that aims to explain real life in its proper context. It integrates findings from various social science disciplines such as economics, political science, psychology, and history, to study pressing social issues. This comprehensive approach helps in understanding the complexities of societal phenomena. Exercising one’s sociological imagination involves using critical thinking skills to carefully examine evidence. This approach is beneficial in various aspects of life, including academia, work, family, media consumption, and voting. Developing a sociological imagination can significantly enhance these critical thinking skills. Studying sociology equips you with valuable skills that are highly sought after in the modern workplace. These include: Research Abilities: Sociology enhances your ability to conduct and interpret research. Cross-Cultural Understanding: It broadens your perspective and understanding of different cultures. Problem-Solving and Critical Thinking: It enhances your ability to analyze situations and solve problems. Communication Skills: It improves your reading, writing, and communication skills. Trend Recognition: It enables you to identify and understand social trends and patterns. These skills are not only valued by employers in various fields but also provide a solid foundation for graduate studies in disciplines like law, business, social work, teaching, civil service, and social research. List of Key Terms Constraining power-The ability of a social institution to control people’s behaviour and increase their obedience to social norms, and to limit their life chances and opportunities. Culture-The shared lens of values and beliefs through which we view reality. Interaction-A patterned exchange of information, judgment, confirmation, or emotions between at least two people in a social setting. Intersectionality-A theoretical approach that examines the interconnection of social disadvantages related to ethnicity, class, and gender, which creates more complex, interdependent systems of oppression. Negotiation-An interaction whose goal is to define the expectations or boundaries of a relationship. Norms-The rules or expectations of behaviour people consider acceptable in their group or society. Norms vary from one community to another and change over time. Roles-The way people expect us to act in a social situation as a member of a particular category, for example, the way people expect us to act as a man or a woman, an old or a young person, a teacher, or a student, and so on. We all play multiple roles at any given time and change roles as we pass through life. Social institution-A social structure governed by stable patterns of rules and expectations. Social institutions include the family, the school, the church, the economy, and the polity. Social relationships-A pattern of continuing contact and communication between two or more people that follows an expected pattern. Social structure-Any enduring, predictable pattern of social relations among people in society that constrains and transforms people’s behaviour, shaping it to the requirements of the social situation. Society-A group of people who occupy a particular territory, feel they make up a unified and distinct entity, and share a standard set of assumptions about reality. Sociological imagination-The ability to see the underlying societal causes of individual experiences and issues. Statuses-The rights, duties, and lifestyle that people associate with a particular role in an institution or society. Symbolic violence-Nonphysical violence or harm perpetrated by the powerful against the powerless. Transformative power-The ability of a social institution or experience to radically change people’s routine practice. Values-A shared understanding of what a group or society considers suitable, right, and desirable; a way of viewing the world and attaching positive or negative sentiments. Values vary between communities and change over time.

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