Soc 100 Ch. 1-4 Notes PDF

🌎 SOC 100 VOCABULARY Society: Large human group sharing territory and institutions. Culture: System of behaviors, beliefs, values, and materials shaping society. Dominant culture: Imposes values using political/economic powe...

🌎 SOC 100 VOCABULARY Society: Large human group sharing territory and institutions. Culture: System of behaviors, beliefs, values, and materials shaping society. Dominant culture: Imposes values using political/economic power. Example: Media focusing on wealth, fashion, and status. Countercultures: Reject dominant culture (e.g., anti-consumerist groups). Subcultures: Differ from dominant culture without opposing it (e.g., lawyers vs. plumbers). High vs. Popular Culture: High culture: Elite appreciation (e.g., opera, classical literature). Popular culture: Mass appeal (e.g., rap, pop music, modern novels). Blending: Events merging both cultures (e.g., live orchestras with movie screenings). Agency: Individual ability to make decisions (e.g., choosing a summer job, attending university). Sociologists: SOC 100 1  Durkheim vs. Rousseau on Human Nature Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Imagined humans before society as "happy savages," living without interaction or language. Argued the "primitive state" was ideal: free from upheavals and corruption of civilization. Progress of civilization led to individual perfection but societal decay. Durkheim’s Critique: Disagreed with Rousseau's romanticization of the pre-society stage. Claimed humans cannot exist without society; society is integral to humanity. Society fosters connection and defines what it means to be human. Melvin Kohn’s Study on Parental Socialization and Social Class Kohn (1959) examined how parental social class influences the values parents instill in children. Found that while parents agree on a general set of values, social class shapes which values are prioritized. Study of 400 families: half working-class, half middle-class. Findings: Middle-class mothers emphasized internal feelings and self-direction (e.g., empathy, happiness, self-control, curiosity). Working-class mothers valued conformity (e.g., neatness, obedience). Different expectations for boys and girls: Boys: School performance, ambition. Girls: Neatness, good manners. Implications (Conflict Theory Perspective): Different values reinforce class inequalities by preparing children for different types of jobs. SOC 100 2  Middle-class children develop traits suited for professional careers (curiosity, ambition). Working-class children are encouraged to conform, preparing them for jobs requiring obedience. Gender expectations perpetuate gender inequality, affecting career outcomes. Symbolic Interactionists: Herbert Blumer’s Three Premises (1969): 1. Humans act toward things based on the meanings they assign. 2. Meaning arises from social interaction. 3. Meanings are interpreted and modified through interactions. George Herbert Mead’s Role-Taking Theory: 1. Preparatory Stage: Children imitate significant others (parents, siblings). 2. Role-Taking Stage: Pretend play (e.g., playing house, mimicking adult roles). 3. Game Stage: Learn complex roles and rules (e.g., baseball, teamwork). 4. Generalized Other: Develop awareness of societal expectations. Agents of Socialization: Family, peers, education, media, religion. Teach individuals how to function in society. Charles Horton Cooley’s Looking-Glass Self (1902): Self-concept shaped by how we believe others perceive us. Three Steps: 1. Imagine how others see us. 2. Interpret their judgments. 3. Develop self-image based on perceptions. SOC 100 3  Can lead to misinterpretations (e.g., eating disorders due to false body image perception). Highlights interaction in shaping identity. Erving Goffman: developed the dramaturgical perspective, viewing social life as a stage where individuals are actors. Performative: according to Goffman, we perform ritualized roles to manage social interactions (positively) by presenting a version of self adapted to the situation (think about the rules or norms that govern face-to-face interactions). Situational: the ways in which we perform social roles depend on situations. Interactions define situations. Social Construction of Knowledge (Berger & Luckmann) Reality is Socially Constructed (Symbolic Interactionist Perspective) Peter Berger & Thomas Luckmann (1966) argue that knowledge is not discovered but created through social interactions. What we consider "real" is shaped by society’s norms, interactions, and institutions rather than objective truths. Key Quote: “The sociology of knowledge must concern itself with what passes for ‘knowledge’ in a society, regardless of the ultimate validity or invalidity (…) of such ‘knowledge’.” Berger & Luckmann (1966) - Social Construction: Two-Step Process: Categorization: People categorize experiences, then act based on these categories. SOC 100 4  Internalization/Objectivation: People forget the social origins of these categories, treating them as natural/unchanging Notable Early Female Sociologists: Harriet Martineau (1802–1876) Translated Comte’s work into English. Wrote on slavery and gender inequality. Compared women’s status to slaves in "The Political Non-existence of Women". Jane Addams (1860–1935) Founded Hull House (Chicago shelter for the poor). Campaigned for social reform. Seen as a threat by authorities (J. Edgar Hoover called her “the most dangerous woman in America"). Nobel Peace Prize Winner (1931). Three Core Foci of Sociology Social Inequality Definition: Refers to the gap between advantaged and disadvantaged groups, impacting rights, opportunities, rewards, and privileges. Social Institutions Definition: Norms, values, and rules that structure human interactions, e.g., family, education, religion, economy, government. Social Change Definition: Examines transformations in society and institutions over time. Example – Religion: Secularization: the process of religion losing its authority over individuals and social life in general SOC 100 5  Value Judgements: draw conclusions based on a limited knowledge, an inward-looking (subjective) assessment of reality, often based on hearsay, prejudice, popular opinion, and are one-sided. CH.1 SUMMARY Social Institutions Overview: Social institutions are the established norms, values, and rules that structure human interactions within society. They play a crucial role in maintaining societal functionality, facilitating social change, and can also contribute to social inequality. Functionality: ◦ Maintain order and stability in society. ◦ Provide frameworks for social behavior and interaction. Social Change: ◦ Act as potential sites for transformation and reform. ◦ Can both hinder and promote progress within societies. Standardization: ◦ Institutions create regularized patterns of behavior. ◦ Actions become predictable and structured over time. Social Inequality: ◦ Institutions can reproduce existing inequalities. ◦ Different groups may experience varying levels of access to resources and opportunities based on institutional structures. Sociological Imagination Overview: The sociological imagination, coined by C. Wright Mills, is the ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and larger social forces. It SOC 100 6  emphasizes understanding personal troubles in the context of public issues and historical circumstances that shape society. Connection to Society: ◦ Understanding how individual lives are influenced by societal structures. ◦ Recognizing the interplay between personal choices and social constraints. Personal Troubles vs Public Issues: ◦ Personal Troubles: Individual challenges (e.g., losing a job) that affect one's life directly. ◦ Public Issues: Collective problems (e.g., unemployment) that impact large groups and require societal solutions. ◦ Relationship: Personal troubles can escalate into public issues when they affect many individuals. Historical Context: ◦ Importance of linking biography with history to understand societal influences on personal experiences. ◦ Acknowledges that individual actions are shaped by historical events and social changes. Social Forces: ◦ Identifying larger social dynamics (e.g., economic conditions, cultural norms) that limit or shape individual choices. ◦ Examining how these forces create patterns of behavior and influence personal outcomes. Value Judgments Overview: Value judgments are subjective opinions about reality that lack empirical evidence. They often stem from personal beliefs, prejudices, or popular opinion and can misrepresent social issues by oversimplifying complex problems. SOC 100 7  Definition: ◦ Distinction between values (what is considered good/important) and value judgments (subjective opinions). ◦ Value judgments are not based on factual evidence and reflect limited knowledge. Impact on Understanding: ◦ Can lead to misconceptions about social problems. ◦ Often used in media and politics to manipulate public opinion rather than provide sociological insights. ◦ Essential for sociologists to recognize and avoid value judgments to maintain objective analysis. Examples in Society: ◦ Claims like "Crime is crime, not a sociological phenomenon!" ignore the social context of crime. ◦ Statements such as "More prisons is the solution to criminality!" or "Prisons should be abolished!" present one-sided views without considering broader implications. ◦ Assertions like "Long wait times prove healthcare is broken" lack comprehensive evidence and overlook systemic factors. ◦ Blaming immigration for unemployment reflects prejudice rather than addressing underlying economic issues. ◦ Generalizations about welfare recipients being lazy are unfounded and dismissive of individual circumstances. Social Change Overview: Social change refers to significant alterations in social structures, cultural norms, and values over time. It encompasses various processes, including secularization, changing roles within society, and the influence of religion on social dynamics. Secularization: ◦ Definition: The process by which religion loses its authority and influence over SOC 100 8  individuals and societal institutions. ◦ Impact: Reflects a shift towards more secular values in modern societies. Changing Roles: ◦ Examination of how traditional roles (e.g., gender roles) evolve in response to social changes. ◦ Influence of factors such as technology, economy, and education on role transformations. Influence of Religion: ◦ Analysis of the diminishing role of religious institutions in public life. ◦ Exploration of how this decline affects moral frameworks and community cohesion. Sociological Research Focus: ◦ Investigates the causes and consequences of social change. ◦ Studies the interplay between social institutions and their capacity to facilitate or hinder change. Core Foci of Sociology Overview: The core foci of sociology encompass the study of social inequality, social institutions, and social change. These areas help sociologists understand the dynamics of society, including disparities in power and resources, the structure of societal norms, and the evolution of social practices over time. Social Inequality: ◦ Examines the gap between advantaged and disadvantaged groups. ◦ Focuses on disparities in rights, opportunities, rewards, and privileges. ◦ Investigates how these inequalities shape individual experiences and societal structures. Social Institutions: ◦ Studies five primary institutions: family, education, religion, economy, and government. SOC 100 9  ◦ Defines institutions as networks of norms, values, and rules guiding human interactions. ◦ Emphasizes that institutions are more than physical spaces; they include social relationships and roles. Social Change: ◦ Analyzes processes that lead to transformations in society. ◦ Secularization is a key example, reflecting the decline of religious authority in modern life. ◦ Explores reasons behind shifts in social norms and the evolving role of various institutions, particularly religion. Here's a condensed study guide based on your SOC 100 material, including key concepts and case studies. The Birth of Sociology Sociology emerged from: Modern Democracy: Recognizing that society can be understood and changed. Industrial Revolution: Rapid urbanization changed social dynamics. Scientific Revolution: Empirical research and rational thought replaced religious explanations. Three Core Aims of Sociology 1. Seeing the General in the Particular (Peter Berger, 1963) Identifying patterns in behavior. Example: Social media algorithms like #fyp reflect broader trends. 2. Questioning the Familiar Everyday life is not self-evident. Example: Leaving a coat on a chair = social norm for claiming a seat. Case Study: Horace Miner’s "Body Ritual among the Nacirema" SOC 100 10  Satirical study on American hygiene habits to show how culture shapes perspective. 3. How Society Shapes Us vs. How We Shape Society Institutions are shaped by people but also influence individuals. Durkheim’s Study of Suicide (1897) Key Insight: Suicide rates are influenced by social factors, not just personal choice. Types of Suicide (Based on social integration & regulation): 1. Egoistic Suicide: Low social integration (e.g., Protestants vs. Catholics). 2. Altruistic Suicide: High social integration (e.g., military sacrifice, cult suicides). 3. Anomic Suicide: Low regulation (e.g., societies in crisis, genocide cases). 4. Fatalistic Suicide: High regulation, no escape (e.g., slaves). Research Methods in Sociology Quantitative Methods Surveys: Collect large-scale data on attitudes & behaviors. Experiments: Compare control & experimental groups. Qualitative Methods Interviews: In-depth responses & follow-ups. Participant Observation (Ethnography): Studying a group through immersion. Other Methods Content Analysis: Studying texts, media, and historical documents. Focus Groups: Group discussions on specific topics. Harold Garfinkel – Breaching Experiments SOC 100 11  Purpose: Understanding social norms by deliberately breaking them. Example: Students acting as guests in their parents' homes to observe reactions. Key Takeaways Sociology analyzes social inequality, institutions, and change. Social norms shape behavior and can be studied through empirical research. Case studies like Durkheim’s suicide research and Garfinkel’s breaching experiments reveal hidden social forces. Chapter 2 Self and Identity Overview: The concept of self and identity explores how individuals perceive themselves and their roles within society. It emphasizes the influence of social interactions and the perceptions of others in shaping one's self-concept, as articulated by theorists like Cooley and Mead. Looking-Glass Self: ◦ Developed by Charles Cooley. ◦ Suggests that our self-image is formed through the reactions and reflections of others. ◦ We see ourselves as we believe others see us, influencing our self-esteem and identity. Mead's Theory: ◦ George H. Mead proposed four stages of role-taking in children: 1. Imitation Stage: Children mimic significant others to learn language and symbols. 2. Role Playing Stage: Children pretend to be other people, exploring different SOC 100 12  identities. 3. Game Stage: Children understand complex rules and roles in games, learning cooperation and competition. 4. Self-Reflection Stage: Children view themselves from the perspective of others, developing a more nuanced self-concept. Social Interactions: ◦ Socialization is crucial for developing a sense of self and identity. ◦ Individuals interpret their experiences based on societal meanings assigned through interactions. ◦ Agents of socialization (family, peers, education) play significant roles in shaping identity and self-perception. Gender and Socialization Overview: Gender and socialization explore how societal norms and structures shape individual identities and relationships based on gender. It highlights the power dynamics, particularly patriarchy, that influence social roles and expectations for men and women. Patriarchy: ◦ System of male domination in society. ◦ Organizes social structures around men's experiences and positions. ◦ Feminist theorists research and resist patriarchal systems through activism. Gender Relations: ◦ Defined by unequal power dynamics favoring men over women. ◦ Influences various aspects of life, including family, work, and education. ◦ Examines how these relations perpetuate social inequalities. Feminist Perspectives: ◦ Broadens Marx's theory to include gender as a critical aspect of class conflict. SOC 100 13  ◦ Early feminist sociologists like Harriet Martineau and Jane Addams contributed significantly to the field. ◦ Contemporary feminists (e.g., bell hooks, Judith Butler) analyze how gender shapes reality and conflicts within society. Socialization: ◦ A process influenced by dominant sociological theories: structural functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. ◦ Often viewed as top-down, where those with power dictate social norms and values. ◦ Raises questions about who controls socialization processes and their impact on equality. Role Exit and Resocialization Overview: Role exit refers to the process of disengaging from a social role, while resocialization involves learning new norms and values for a different role. These processes can occur simultaneously as individuals transition between roles in various life situations. Role Exit Process: ◦ Focuses on leaving an existing role. ◦ Stages include: ▪ Disillusionment with current identity. ▪ Searching for alternative roles. ▪ A turning point that triggers the exit. ▪ Creating an "ex" identity (e.g., ex-partner). ◦ Common examples: career changes, divorce, relocation. Resocialization: ◦ Involves replacing old behaviors and values with new ones. ◦ Can be voluntary (e.g., religious conversion) or involuntary (e.g., leaving prison). ◦ Example: Retirees adjusting to life without work. SOC 100 14  Anticipatory Socialization: ◦ Preparing for future roles before they are assumed. ◦ Examples include medical students practicing bedside manner or children playing as parents. ◦ Helps individuals rehearse and adapt to upcoming responsibilities. Stages of Socialization: ◦ Primary Socialization: ▪ Occurs in early childhood. ▪ Learning unwritten social rules primarily through family. ▪ Foundation for social behaviors. ◦ Secondary Socialization: ▪ Adapting to subcultures within larger society. ▪ Example: Joining a sports team requires learning specific group behaviors. Socialization Overview: Socialization is the lifelong process through which individuals learn societal norms, customs, and ideologies. It plays a crucial role in identity formation and equips people with the skills necessary to participate effectively in society. Definition: ◦ Lifelong learning of social norms and customs. ◦ Essential for developing personal identity and sense of self. Lifelong Process: ◦ Continues throughout an individual's life. ◦ Involves adapting to various social contexts and groups. Identity Formation: ◦ Helps individuals establish their sense of self. ◦ Influenced by interactions and feedback from others. SOC 100 15  Stages of Socialization: ◦ Primary Socialization: ▪ Occurs in early childhood. ▪ Family is the primary agent; learning through observation and imitation. ▪ Establishes foundational social behaviors (e.g., conversation etiquette). ◦ Secondary Socialization: ▪ Involves learning behaviors of subcultures within larger society. ▪ Example: Adapting to new roles when joining a sports team. ▪ Focuses on integration into smaller groups after initial societal membership. Theoretical Perspectives: ◦ Structural Functionalism: Views socialization as a top-down process where those in power impart norms to others. ◦ Conflict Theory: Examines how socialization can reinforce inequalities. ◦ Symbolic Interactionism: Emphasizes that our sense of self is shaped by social interactions and the reactions of others. Agents of Socialization Overview: Agents of socialization are the forces that shape individuals' beliefs, behaviors, and identities throughout their lives. Key agents include family, peer groups, and the education system, each playing a crucial role in both primary and secondary socialization processes. Family: ◦ Primary agent of socialization during early childhood. ◦ Teaches unwritten social rules through observation and imitation. ◦ Forms foundational social behaviors and norms (e.g., personal space). Peer Groups: SOC 100 16  ◦ Significant during adolescence and beyond. ◦ Introduces new behaviors and attitudes specific to subcultures (e.g., sports teams). ◦ Encourages independence from family influence. Education System: ◦ Provides formal instruction and social norms. ◦ Facilitates learning about societal roles and expectations. ◦ Acts as a bridge between family and broader society, reinforcing or challenging values learned at home. Primary vs. Secondary Socialization: ◦ Primary Socialization: Learning to be a member of society; occurs mainly within the family. ◦ Secondary Socialization: Adapting to smaller groups within society; involves learning new roles and behaviors. Theoretical Perspectives: ◦ Symbolic Interactionism: Focuses on how socialization develops self-identity through interaction with significant others. ▪ Stages of role-taking: imitating, role-playing, understanding complex rules, and viewing oneself through others' perspectives. ◦ Conflict Theory: Examines power dynamics in socialization. ▪ Questions who controls socialization processes and how they benefit certain groups over others. ▪ Highlights disparities based on class and access to resources. Conclusion: Understanding agents of socialization is essential for recognizing how individuals learn to navigate their social worlds and develop their identities within various contexts. SOC 100 17  Stages of Socialization Overview: Socialization is a lifelong process through which individuals learn societal norms, customs, and ideologies. It involves various stages that shape one's identity and ability to function within society, primarily influenced by family, peers, and educational systems. Primary Socialization: ◦ Occurs in early childhood. ◦ Family is the primary agent of socialization. ◦ Involves learning unwritten social rules through observation and imitation. ◦ Forms foundational social behaviors (e.g., personal space norms). Secondary Socialization: ◦ Involves learning behaviors and attitudes of subcultures within larger society. ◦ Example: Adapting to new behaviors when joining groups like sports teams. ◦ Distinction from primary socialization: focuses on smaller group dynamics rather than general societal membership. Role-Taking Stages (George H. Mead's Theory): ◦ Stage 1: Imitation of significant others; learning language and symbols. ◦ Stage 2: Role-playing; children pretend to be others in their lives. ◦ Stage 3: Game stage; understanding complex rules in games. ◦ Stage 4: Self-reflection; thinking about oneself through the perspectives of others. Anticipatory Socialization: ◦ Preparing for future roles (e.g., parenting, new jobs). ◦ Example: Medical students practicing bedside manner. ◦ Children rehearse future roles through play. SOC 100 18  Resocialization: ◦ Involves replacing old roles, behaviors, and values with new ones. ◦ Can be voluntary (e.g., religious conversion) or involuntary (e.g., leaving prison). ◦ Example: Retirees adjusting to life without work. Theoretical Perspectives on Socialization Overview: Socialization is the lifelong process through which individuals learn and internalize the values, beliefs, and norms of their society. Different sociological theories provide distinct perspectives on how socialization occurs and its implications for individuals and society. Structural Functionalism: ◦ Views socialization as a means to maintain social order. ◦ Emphasizes the role of institutions (family, education) in transmitting culture and norms. ◦ Focuses on how socialization contributes to stability and cohesion within society. Conflict Theory: ◦ Questions who controls the socialization process and its impact on power dynamics. ◦ Examines how socialization perpetuates inequalities among different social classes. ◦ Highlights the role of dominant groups in shaping societal ideals and norms. Feminist Theory: ◦ Analyzes how gender roles are constructed through socialization. ◦ Explores the ways in which socialization reinforces patriarchal structures. ◦ Advocates for understanding the unique experiences of women in the socialization process. Symbolic Interactionism: ◦ Focuses on the micro-level interactions that shape individual identities. SOC 100 19  ◦ George H. Mead's stages of role-taking illustrate how children develop self- concepts through social interactions. ◦ Emphasizes the importance of language and symbols in forming one's sense of self and identity. Agents of Socialization: ◦ Key agents include family, peers, education systems, and media. ◦ Each agent plays a significant role in teaching individuals how to function within society. ◦ Distinction between personal roles and public personas in social contexts. Here’s a condensed study guide based on your SOC 100 - Chapter 2 Part 2 material, including key concepts and case studies. Socialization: Becoming a Member of Society Socialization: The lifelong process of learning norms, values, and roles to function in society. Goffman’s Dramaturgical Perspective: Society is like a stage where individuals perform roles. Performance of Social Roles: We modify behavior based on the social setting. Front Stage: Public self, managing impressions. Back Stage: Private self, where we relax. Goffman’s Theory on Social Interaction 1. Expressions Given vs. Expressions Given Off: Expressions Given: Intentional communication (e.g., words, gestures). Expressions Given Off: Unintentional signals (e.g., body language). Example: A job applicant confidently says, "I'm great under pressure" (expression given), but if they fidget and avoid eye contact (expression given off), their confidence is questioned. SOC 100 20  2. Case Study: Preedy at the Beach Sansom’s Short Story: Preedy carefully manages his behavior to appear impressive. His overperformance makes him look unnatural, failing in his self- presentation. 3. Case Study: Mr. Bean’s Beach Scene Trying too hard to control impressions can backfire. Example of nonverbal communication and embarrassment. Saving Face and Managing Social Impressions Saving Face: Avoiding embarrassment by controlling impressions. Corrective Practices: Fixing social missteps (e.g., laughing off a mistake). Going Off Script: Disruptions challenge social norms. Example: Kanye West interrupting Taylor Swift’s speech. Did he discredit himself? Aging and Socialization Furstenberg’s 7 Markers of Adulthood: 1. Completing education 2. Financial independence 3. Working full-time 4. Supporting a family 5. Leaving parental home 6. Getting married 7. Having children Are these still relevant today? SOC 100 21  Many people delay traditional adulthood markers due to economic and social changes. Margaret Mead’s Research on Samoa: Showed that social factors shape how societies define aging and life stages. Types of Socialization 1. Primary Socialization: Learning basic societal norms and behaviors (e.g., from family). Example: Learning to say "thank you." 2. Secondary Socialization: Learning behaviors in specific social groups (e.g., workplace, sports team). 3. Anticipatory Socialization: Preparing for future roles (e.g., medical students practicing bedside manner). 4. Resocialization: Learning new norms after a life transition (e.g., retirees adjusting to post- work life). Gender Socialization Learning behaviors based on societal gender norms. Example: Toy preferences in childhood (dolls vs. action figures). Gender roles are reinforced throughout life. Theories on Socialization 1. Structural Functionalism: Socialization creates stability and social cohesion. SOC 100 22  2. Conflict Theory: Socialization maintains power structures and reinforces inequality. 3. Feminist Theory: Examines how socialization enforces gender roles. 4. Symbolic Interactionism: Focuses on how individuals actively negotiate their social roles. Key Takeaways Socialization is essential for learning norms and developing identity. Goffman’s dramaturgical approach explains how we perform roles in different contexts. Aging and adulthood are shaped by social expectations, not just biology. Gender socialization reinforces societal expectations. Different sociological perspectives interpret socialization in unique ways. Chapter 3: Deviance, Law, and Crime – Study Notes Social Construction of Knowledge (Berger & Luckmann) Reality is Socially Constructed (Symbolic Interactionist Perspective) Peter Berger & Thomas Luckmann (1966) argue that knowledge is not discovered but created through social interactions. What we consider "real" is shaped by society’s norms, interactions, and institutions rather than objective truths. Key Quote: SOC 100 23  “The sociology of knowledge must concern itself with what passes for ‘knowledge’ in a society, regardless of the ultimate validity or invalidity (…) of such ‘knowledge’.” Berger & Luckmann (1966) - Social Construction: Two-Step Process: Categorization: People categorize experiences, then act based on these categories. Internalization/Objectivation: People forget the social origins of these categories, treating them as natural/unchanging. Example: Time: Different societies have varied time divisions (e.g., 3-19 day weeks). Our 7-day week is a social construct. We create practices around it (weekends, religious days). We forget its arbitrary nature, seeing it as natural. Core Concepts of Social Construction 1. Social Relativity: Different societies construct different "realities" (e.g., Cuban vs. Canadian perspectives). Knowledge is not universal but shaped by culture and experiences. 2. Knowledge is Maintained Through Social Interactions: People reinforce shared meanings in daily interactions, shaping what is seen as "true" or "normal." Example: A law may define crime in Canada, but in another society, informal agreements determine justice. 3. First-Order & Second-Order Typifications (Schutz’s Influence): Typification: the mental process of creating standardized, simplified representations of people, objects, or events, based on common SOC 100 24  assumptions. These mental shortcuts help us navigate the social world, but can also lead to stereotypes and biased perceptions. First-order typifications: These are the everyday, taken-for-granted understandings we have about the world. They're the "recipes" we use to navigate daily life, like knowing how to order coffee or what to expect in a classroom. They are based on our direct experiences and form the basis of our common-sense knowledge. Second-order typifications: typifications that social scientists create when they analyze first-order typifications. Schutz argued that sociologists need to understand these everyday understandings to grasp how people construct social reality. 1 So, a sociologist might analyze how the first-order typification of "student" influences classroom dynamics or educational policies. The Process of Social Construction 1. Externalization → People create norms & institutions (e.g., laws, customs). 2. Objectivation → These norms become “objective” and feel real. 3. Internalization → People accept these norms without question. Example: Laws are originally created by people (externalization). Over time, they feel permanent (objectivation). People follow them as if they are natural (internalization). Social Construction of Deviance Norms define deviance, and these norms change over time. Deviance is context-dependent and varies across cultures. Historical examples: The Ship of Fools (16th Century) Mental illness seen as religious visions or supernatural influence. SOC 100 25  Society did not view madness as a medical issue but as a moral or divine condition. Practice: "Fools" (mentally ill) were put on boats and sent away, symbolizing their exclusion. Artistic depiction: Hieronymus Bosch’s Ship of Fools (1494–1516). Connection to deviance: Mental illness was tolerated until attitudes shifted toward confinement. The Great Confinement (17th-18th Century) Coined by Foucault in Madness and Civilization. Shift from integrating deviants in society to locking them up. Institutions created: Workhouses → Forced labor for the poor. Asylums → Confined the mentally ill. Prisons → Housed criminals & social outcasts. Purpose: Restore social order and act as a warning to others. Example: Hôpital Général (Paris, 1656) housed 1% of the city's population. Transition: Led to specialized techniques for "treating" deviance rather than just isolating it. Foucault’s Discipline & Punish (1975) – Surveillance & Control Shift from public punishment → surveillance & discipline. Panopticon (Bentham): Circular prison where a watchtower sees all, but inmates can’t see the guard. Creates constant uncertainty, leading prisoners to self-discipline. Modern application: Surveillance in schools, workplaces, and cities shapes behavior without direct force. Key idea: Fear of being watched reduces deviance, making punishment less visible but more effective. SOC 100 26  Key Takeaways Ship of Fools: Madness seen as divine/mystical, later rejected. Great Confinement: Shift to institutionalizing deviance as a social threat. Foucault’s Panopticon: Surveillance controls behavior, reducing the need for visible punishment. Types of Deviance Minor Deviances: Socially unacceptable but not criminal (e.g., unusual fashion). Lesser Crimes: Illegal but not severe (e.g., petty theft). Consensus Crimes: Illegal and highly harmful (e.g., murder). White-Collar Crimes: Financial crimes committed in professional settings. Structural Theories (Explain deviance as a response to society’s structure) Strain Theory (Merton): People commit crimes when societal goals (e.g., wealth) do not match opportunities to achieve them. If goals are important, people may resort to deviance to achieve them. Not everyone accepts cultural goals. SOC 100 27  Conformity: Accepting both the goals and the means (most common). Example: Working hard in a regular job. Innovation: Accepting the goals but rejecting the means. Example: Committing crimes to get rich. Ritualism: Rejecting the goals but clinging to the means. Example: A bureaucrat who follows rules meticulously but has given up on career advancement. Retreatism: Rejecting both the goals and the means. Example: Drug addicts or homeless individuals. Rebellion: Rejecting both the goals and the means and trying to replace them with new ones. Example: Revolutionaries or activists. **Key Points:** * Strain is a social, not just individual, problem. It's about the structure of society. * Different people experience different levels of strain. Subcultural Theory: Some subcultures (e.g., gangs, organized crime) have their own values and norms that differ from the dominant society. These groups reject mainstream goals and form alternative structures. Learning & Interactionist Theories (Explain deviance as learned behavior) Learning Theory (Sutherland): Crime is learned through interaction with criminals. If someone grows up around crime, they are more likely to engage in it. Control Theory (Hirschi): Weak social bonds lead to crime. People commit crime when they lack close relationships, institutional ties, or belief in traditional values. SOC 100 28  Labelling Theory (Becker): Being labeled as deviant can reinforce criminal behavior. 1.Acts of primary deviance refers to early, random acts of deviance that are common. 2.Acts of secondary deviance are more serious (and frequent) and may cause an individual to organize their life and identity around being deviant (possibly leading to more deviance). The Canadian Youth Criminal Justice Act prevents labeling young offenders to avoid secondary deviance. Crime and Rehabilitation Waseskun Healing Center (Case Study): Rehabilitation for Indigenous inmates. Challenges post-release: Housing, jobs, social stigma, financial struggles. Durkheim’s Functionalist View on Deviance Crime is normal and serves a function in society. Four Functions of Crime: 1. Affirms norms (defines right & wrong). 2. Strengthens social unity (through collective reaction). 3. Encourages social change (e.g., civil rights movements). 4. Creates employment (police, courts, prisons). Punishment in Society Types of punishment: Retribution: a punishment should be comparable to the suffering caused by the crime. SOC 100 29  Deterrence: the process of convincing individuals to not commit crimes again or commit them in the first place. Rehabilitation: Focus on reform (e.g., parole, probation). Recidivism rates (the rates at which individuals reoffend within two years of release) have been decreasing over time The Power of the Situation People’s behavior is shaped more by social forces than personality. Milgram Experiment (1963) – Obedience to Authority Goal: Test how far people obey authority, even when harming others. Setup: Participants: An authoritative figure, a teacher, and a learner. ("teachers") were told to administer electric shocks to a "learner" (actor) for wrong answers. Authority figures pressured them to continue despite the learner’s distress. Findings: 65% delivered the maximum lethal shock. Many hesitated but obeyed when told, “The experiment requires you to continue.” Takeaway: Ordinary people can commit harmful acts under authoritative pressure. Real-world relevance: War crimes, corporate corruption, police brutality. Stanford Prison Experiment (1971) – Power & Role-Playing Goal: Test how people conform to roles of authority (guards) and subordination (prisoners). SOC 100 30  Setup: 24 students randomly assigned as guards or prisoners in a simulated prison. Guards given uniforms & batons, prisoners stripped of identity. Planned for 2 weeks, stopped after 6 days due to extreme behavior. Findings: Guards became cruel; prisoners became submissive & distressed. Even Zimbardo (the researcher) got caught up in the role. Takeaway: Power structures influence behavior—people can become abusive in positions of authority. Real-world relevance: Prison abuse (e.g., Abu Ghraib scandal). Key Lesson Situational forces override personality—ordinary people can act unethically under pressure. Explains conformity, mob mentality, and systemic abuse. Crime Statistics in Canada Crime tracking: Uniform Crime Reporting Survey & Crime Severity Index. Patterns: Crime declines with age (less crime after age 60). Men commit more crime, but crime rates among women are rising. Indigenous & Black communities face disproportionate incarceration (linked to socio-economic status). Final Takeaways SOC 100 31  Berger & Luckmann: Knowledge and reality are socially constructed through interactions. Deviance: Socially defined, varies by culture, and is influenced by power and norms. Crime theories: Structural (Strain, Subcultural), Learning, Control, and Labelling Theories explain why crime happens. Durkheim: Crime serves a social function. Punishment & Rehabilitation: Balancing deterrence, justice, and reform. Situational Power: Environment affects deviant behavior (Milgram, Zimbardo). TEXTBOOK READINGS: Rosenhan’s "On Being Sane in Insane Places" – Study Notes Main Question: Can we reliably distinguish sanity from insanity? Psychiatric diagnoses may say more about the environment than the patient. The Experiment 8 pseudopatients (5 men, 3 women) faked mild auditory hallucinations ("empty," "hollow," "thud") to gain admission to 12 different psychiatric hospitals. Once admitted, they behaved completely normally and reported no symptoms. They had to convince staff they were sane to be released. Findings: The Failure to Detect Sanity None of the pseudopatients were identified as sane by hospital staff. Diagnosed mainly with schizophrenia and later discharged as "in remission", implying they were still mentally ill. SOC 100 32  Patients (not staff) often recognized pseudopatients as sane (35 of 118 patients voiced suspicions). The Role of Labelling Once labeled mentally ill, all normal behaviors were interpreted as symptoms. E.g., writing notes was recorded as “engaging in writing behavior” (seen as compulsive or pathological). A patient pacing from boredom was assumed to be nervous due to schizophrenia. Patients sitting before lunch were labeled "oral-acquisitive" instead of just waiting for food. Diagnosis became a "self-fulfilling prophecy"—patients were expected to be ill, so they were treated as such. Implications for Psychiatry Psychiatric labels are "sticky"—once labeled, everything is seen through that diagnosis. False positives (diagnosing a healthy person as ill) are more dangerous in psychiatry than in physical medicine due to social stigma. The study highlights labelling theory: once someone is labeled deviant, that label shapes how others perceive and treat them. Critical Questions & Real-World Impact 1. How does this relate to labelling theory? The label "insane" shaped staff perceptions, making them see normal behavior as pathological. 2. Why is a false mental illness diagnosis worse than a false physical illness diagnosis? SOC 100 33  Social stigma → A psychiatric label affects employment, relationships, and self-identity. 3. Why did patients recognize the pseudopatients, but staff did not? Patients saw normal behavior, while staff viewed them through a psychiatric lens. 4. What does this teach us about deviance and crime? Labels influence future behavior (e.g., criminals being seen as permanently "bad"). Shows the need for rehabilitation and avoiding permanent stigmatization. Key Takeaways Psychiatric diagnoses can be unreliable and influenced by context. Labelling has real consequences—once diagnosed, people are treated as mentally ill even when they behave normally. Recognizing biases in institutions (mental health, criminal justice) is crucial to fair treatment. Chapter 4: Social Inequality and Social Class Feudalism: A hierarchical social system based on land ownership and loyalty, with lords granting land to vassals in exchange for service and peasants working the land. Capitalism: An economic system based on private ownership of the means of production, free markets, and the pursuit of profit. Neoliberalism: A modern form of capitalism emphasizing deregulation, privatization, free trade, and minimal government intervention. Fascism: A far-right, authoritarian ultranationalism characterized by dictatorial power, forcible suppression of opposition, and strong regimentation of society and the economy. SOC 100 34  Socialism: A political and economic system where the means of production are owned and controlled collectively, often by the government, with the goal of greater social equality and reduced inequality. Key Theorist: Karl Marx Founder of conflict theory Witnessed industrial poverty and sought social transformation, not just interpretation. Emphasized praxis: theory + action for social change. Rejected determinism (the idea that society follows predetermined laws). Rejected positivism: the positivist viewpoint that scientific methods can be used to describe so-called laws that determine social reality. Believed human development depends on meeting primary needs first. (Maslow’s Hierarchy) → if all humans were truly born equal then social actualization would be equally achieved Labour Struggles in Canada Winnipeg General Strike (1919): Workers across Canada protested for better conditions. Asbestos Strike (1949): Quebec miners fought against unsafe conditions and low wages. Other notable struggles: 8-hour workday, unemployment insurance, right to refuse unsafe work. Mining Industry Issues: In 2009, 14 out of 24 Quebec mines hadn’t paid royalties in 7 years. The cost of cleaning contaminated sites fell on taxpayers. The Hole Story (NFB) illustrates the cyclical nature of boom-and-bust resource extraction economies in Canada and how this impacts labour. SOC 100 35  workers are drawn to these industries with the promise of high wages and prosperity during boom times. However, these periods are often short-lived, leaving workers vulnerable when the industry declines Labour Struggle in Canada (as depicted in the film): Boom & Bust Cycles: Resource extraction economies create unstable employment. Precarious Work: Jobs are temporary, dependent on commodity prices (energy, metals, agriculture, etc) Lack of Security: No long-term job prospects or community stability. Limited Bargaining Power: Workers have few options in resource-dependent towns. Environmental Risks: Industry can negatively impact worker health & safety. Community Impact: Boom/bust affects entire communities (social disruption, out-migration). II. Main Social Issues: Economic Inequality: Wealth from resources concentrated, workers face precarity. Environmental Degradation: Resource extraction damages ecosystems, threatens sustainability. Social Disparity: Boom/bust worsens existing inequalities. Community Instability: Transient nature of resource jobs disrupts communities. Mental Health: Job insecurity impacts worker well-being. III. Resource Management as a Social Issue: Short-Term Profit Focus: Leads to unsustainable practices & environmental damage. Ignoring Social Costs: Community disruption & worker displacement are disregarded. Lack of Community Input: Decisions made without local consultation. SOC 100 36  Environmental Injustice: Marginalized communities bear the brunt of environmental harm. IV. Importance of a Critical Viewpoint: Challenges Narratives: Questions industry-promoted positive portrayals. Uncovers Power Dynamics: Reveals how power influences resource decisions. Considers Alternatives: Explores more sustainable, equitable solutions. Advocates for Change: Empowers action for social justice & environmental protection. Marx on Capitalism and Class Struggle Marx argued that society is organized around human labor. The way in which labor is divided shapes society and social relations → MEANING labor is a social activity Mode of Production (system): The way society organizes production (e.g., industrial labor, capitalism, etc) Means of Production: Factories, land, resources—controlled by capitalists. Class Relations: Based on who owns the means of production. Key Social Classes Bourgeoisie: Capitalists own the means of production. Proletariat: Workers, sell their labor for wages. Petite Bourgeoisie: Small business owners. Lumpenproletariat: Unemployed or marginalized workers. Capitalist Exploitation Workers produce wealth, but capitalists take the surplus value (profit beyond wages). Capitalists expand to maximize profits → “Rich get richer, poor get poorer.” Contradiction: Labor is social, but wealth is concentrated in a few hands. SOC 100 37  Marx argued for redistribution to create an equitable system. There is a built-in conflict between the workers and the capitalists who exploit them. Marx saw the problem of the concentration of wealth: the point that the economic system, left unchecked (without methods of redistribution), leads to disparity of wealth and gives undue political and economic control to the wealthy. Ideology and False Consciousness Ideology: System of beliefs that shapes social reality. False Consciousness: Workers accept capitalist interests as their own (e.g., media influences, propaganda). Class Consciousness: When workers recognize their shared struggle and organize. Modern Example: Amazon Unionization Amazon workers seek unionization due to poor wages and harsh conditions. Reflects class struggle between workers and corporate owners. Unions: SOC 100 38  Organizations of workers who collectively bargain with employers. Advocate for better wages, benefits, and working conditions. Unionization:The process of workers forming or joining a union. Decline of Unionization Trade Union Density (percentage of unionized workers) has decreased. Public policies, labor laws, and economic shifts have weakened unions. Income Inequality (Chapter 4) from SOC 100. Introduction Builds on Karl Marx’s critical approach to social inequality. New capitalism is seen as incompatible with social justice, democracy, and liberty in the long run. What is Income Inequality? Refers to unequal income distribution within a country. Economic growth does not guarantee fair distribution of wealth. In Canada, top 20% own 70% of the country’s wealth, while the bottom 80% share only 30%. How Did Income Inequality Develop? The Rise of Neoliberalism (1980s-Present) Neoliberalism: a political-economic philosophy that emphasizes free market capitalism, deregulation, privatization, and reduced government intervention in the economy. Shift towards free trade, deregulation, and privatization under Thatcher (UK) and Reagan (USA). SOC 100 39  Based on market triumphalism: belief that markets alone can ensure public good. Milton Friedman & Raymond Aron inspired this model. Belief that hard work + innovation = success, but ignores systemic barriers. Consequences of Neoliberalism First phase (1980s–1990s): Lower taxes, reduced trade union power, dismantling of socialist alternatives. Increased militarization and surveillance. Second phase (2000s–Present): High national debt threatens social safety nets (e.g., pensions, welfare programs). Tax cuts + deregulation → weak welfare states (e.g., Trump’s policies undermining healthcare). Growing wealth gap: benefits concentrated among top 1%. Market expansionism leads to economic crashes (e.g., 2008 recession). Critique of Meritocracy Meritocracy: The idea that success is based on individual talent and effort. Problems with meritocracy: Ignores privilege (e.g., wealth, social connections, education). Wealthy elites control opportunities (e.g., elite schools, private healthcare). Hard work ≠ guaranteed success due to systemic barriers. Max Weber’s Theory of Power & Inequality Power: Weber thought power was the chance a person or group of people had to realize their will despite opposition. SOC 100 40  Three Bases of Power: Class – Economic power based on wealth & market position. Status – Social prestige, independent of wealth. (ex: Malala isn’t rich but is universally loved) Party –Organizations seeking power/social change (not just political parties). Social Mobility: The ability to move up/down the economic ladder. Intergenerational mobility: Movement between generations. Intragenerational mobility: Movement within one’s lifetime. Canada has more social mobility than the U.S. due to public policies. Social Stratification & Mobility Stratification is a system where society is divided into hierarchical layers (strata) based on factors like wealth, power, and prestige, resulting in unequal access to resources and opportunities. Achievement-based stratification Rank depends on accomplishments (hard work, diligence). High social status is earned through effort. Ascription-based stratification Rank determined by ascribed characteristics (e.g., ethnicity, religion, sex). Status is assigned based on birth, not individual actions. Example: Apartheid in South Africa White minority ruled. Black majority faced state violence and limited opportunities due to skin color. Socioeconomic Status (SES) & Social Mobility SES is determined by parents’ income, occupational status, and education. SOC 100 41  Societies vary in the extent to which they are achievement- or ascription- based. Measuring Social Mobility Intergenerational income elasticity: Statistical measure of the link between parent and child’s economic status. High elasticity (low mobility): Parents’ SES strongly predicts child’s SES. Low elasticity (high mobility): Child’s economic standing is based more on individual talent. Poverty in Canada Relative poverty: Lack the minimum amount of income needed in order to maintain the average standard of living in the society in which they live. Absolute poverty: Lacking basic necessities for survival. Women, single people, and elderly are more vulnerable to poverty. Cycle of Poverty How poverty perpetuates itself without some sort of outside, usually governmental, intervention. Low income → Limited education → Poor job prospects → Continued poverty. Canada Pension Plan (CPP): Government pension to support retirees. Basic Income: Proposed solution to guarantee minimum earnings for all citizens. Consequences of Income Inequality Undermines democracy: Wealthy individuals have more political influence. Economic segregation: Wealthy monopolize elite education, healthcare, housing. Media control: Corporations influence public opinion and suppress dissent. SOC 100 42  Increased crime & social instability: High inequality leads to lower trust, higher crime rates. Public health decline: Inequality linked to lower life expectancy, poor mental health, obesity. Alternatives to Neoliberalism 1. Stronger public sector (healthcare, education, welfare). 2. Redistribution through taxation (higher taxes on top earners). 3. Guaranteed Basic Income to eliminate extreme poverty. 4. Focus on leisure & cultural well-being rather than profit-driven work culture. Karl Marx understood social class as being based on an individual’s relationship to the means of production. Max Weber added the importance of social status (the honour and prestige accorded to various groups) to Marx’s ideas. Modern Canadian society tends to use socio-economic status to talk about social inequality. Social mobility in Canada is greater than in many other countries. But there is still much poverty in Canada. READING: Communist Manifesto I. Class Struggle Throughout History: History is driven by class struggles (oppressors vs. oppressed). Modern society simplified this into two main classes: Bourgeoisie & Proletariat. II. Rise of the Bourgeoisie: Evolved from the "burghers" of towns in the Middle Ages. Exploration (America, etc.) fueled its growth. Manufacturing replaced guilds, then steam & machinery led to modern industry. SOC 100 43  Established the world market, increased trade & communication. Gained political power through the modern representative state. III. Bourgeoisie's Revolutionary Role: Destroyed feudalism & traditional social structures. Replaced them with self-interest, "cash payment," and free trade. Commodified everything, including professions & family relations. Constantly revolutionizes production and social conditions. Creates a world in its image through global markets and expansion. Centralizes population, production, and political power. Unleashed massive productive forces. IV. Contradictions of Capitalism: Feudal structures became fetters on production, were overthrown. Capitalism's own success creates its downfall. V. Rise of the Proletariat: Modern working class, dependent on wage labor. Workers are a commodity, subject to market fluctuations. Machinery & division of labor devalue workers' skills. Wages are driven down by competition and cost of production. Factory system creates a disciplined, exploited workforce. Women and children increasingly drawn into the workforce. Lower middle class sinks into the proletariat. VI. Proletarian Struggle: Workers unite in trade unions to fight for better wages & conditions. Improved communication aids in nationalizing the class struggle. Proletariat forms a political party. Lower middle class is conservative, but can become revolutionary. SOC 100 44  VII. Inevitability of Revolution: Bourgeoisie cannot sustain its rule, as it creates pauperism (extreme poverty). Capitalism relies on wage labor and competition, which it undermines through industrial development and worker association. Bourgeoisie produces its own "gravediggers" - the proletariat. Proletarian revolution and the fall of the bourgeoisie are inevitable. READING: "Essential" Workers During COVID-19 Social Distancing: Key strategy, but not equally accessible to all workers. Telecommuting Divide: Management/Professional: 86% telecommute-friendly (high median earnings). Sales/Office: 58% telecommute-friendly (mostly women). Service/Construction/Transportation: 0% telecommute-friendly. Gender Disparities: Women overrepresented in sales/office (many non-telecommuting). Men dominate construction/maintenance (all non-telecommuting). Racial/Ethnic Disparities: Latinx overrepresented in construction, extraction, & service. Black workers are overrepresented in essential services like postal and transportation. "Essential" Occupations (San Francisco Bay Area Example): Healthcare (excluding physicians): Mostly women. Social service/childcare/home health: Mostly women. Consumer service (retail, banks, flight attendants): Mostly women. Taxi drivers: Mostly men. Construction/auto repair/freight: Mostly men (lower risk). SOC 100 45  Demographics of "Essential" Workers: Disproportionately people of color (Black, Latinx). Many earn below the national median income. COVID-19 Impact: Unequal impact, with people of color and women at higher risk. Early data suggests disproportionate infection and death rates in Black and Latinx communities (e.g., Michigan, NYC). Critique: Highlights irony of low-wage workers being on the front lines during crisis. SOC 100 46