Advancing Youth Sport Scholarship, 2019 PDF

Kinesiology Review, 2019, 8, 269-277 https://doi.org/10.1123/kr.2019-0046 © 2019 Human Kinetics, Inc. SCHOLARLY ARTICLE Advancing Youth Sport Scholarship:...

Kinesiology Review, 2019, 8, 269-277 https://doi.org/10.1123/kr.2019-0046 © 2019 Human Kinetics, Inc. SCHOLARLY ARTICLE Advancing Youth Sport Scholarship: Selected Directions and Considerations Alan L. Smith, Karl Erickson, and Leapetswe Malete Youth sport research has expanded considerably since the founding of the Michigan State University Institute for the Study of Youth Sports in 1978. This research has resulted in meaningful advancements in knowledge and proved enormously valuable in both safeguarding athlete well-being and fostering positive sport experiences. There are still knowledge gaps in the scholarly literature that have important implications for youth sport participants and programs. Hopefully, the quantity and quality of the scholarly literature on youth sport will continue to expand in response to broader societal changes and scientific advances. This paper addresses the future of youth sport scholarship, focusing on 3 selected areas of promise. The first pertains to positive youth development work, including efforts tied to fostering economic opportunity among young people. The second pertains to youth sport as a domain for addressing public health, an emerging area with respect to physical activity promotion, injury surveillance, physical well-being, and mental health. Finally, the paper addresses implications of the Fourth Industrial Revolution for youth sport and how this might shape scholarship over the coming decades. Pursuing these areas of research while attending to important opportunities for and challenges to the promotion of developmentally appropriate youth sport experiences is expected to meaningfully contribute to knowledge and, ultimately, the well-being of young athletes. Keywords: athlete well-being, fourth industrial revolution, pediatric kinesiology, positive youth development, sport and public health, youth physical activity Extensive participation of young people in organized sport commitment to broadening the disciplines and methods applied to makes youth sport a ubiquitous and important developmental youth sport research. Other conceptual pieces followed that context with significant implications for health and well-being directed scholars to useful theories, important practical concerns, (Brustad, Babkes, & Smith, 2001; Brustad, Vilhjalmsson, & and the topics and orientation of extant youth sport scholarship Fonseca, 2008; Holt, 2016). Aside from school, there are few (e.g., Duda, 1987; Rowland, 1997; Weiss & Bredemeier, 1983; contexts that exhibit the same degree of reach and engagement, not Weiss & Raedeke, 2004). Work in some areas has coalesced only among young people themselves but also of supporting adults, sufficiently to enable the formation of position statements on agencies, and communities. Consequently, it is no surprise that critical practical concerns including sport specialization (Brenner scholarship on youth sport has expanded over the past 4 decades in & AAP Council on Sports Medicine and Fitness, 2016), youth concert with the maturation of kinesiology as an academic disci- resistance training (Faigenbaum et al., 2009), overuse injuries and pline. The context is important and of public interest, our research burnout (DiFiori et al., 2014), sport concussion (Guskiewicz et al., tools have become more numerous and sophisticated, and the pool 2004), sport parenting (Harwood & Knight, 2015), and others. of researchers dedicating their efforts to youth sport has expanded. These statements make clear the many contributions of youth sport Moreover, youth sport has captured the interest of scholars who scholarship over the past 4 decades and that a solid foundation has have been educated and have primary affiliation with disciplinary been established for further advancements in this area of inquiry. areas outside of kinesiology (Mahoney, Larson, & Eccles, 2005). As we consider the next 4 decades, how can the ISYS and For those interested in the well-being of children and adolescents, other leading scholars and collaboratives make meaningful ad- understanding opportunities and challenges that youth sport offers vancements that will contribute to young athletes’ well-being? to athletes, families, and other stakeholders provides a window to Clearly, we should build on the foundation provided by previous understanding healthy development. investigators and attend to important knowledge gaps in the Since 1978 when the Michigan State University Institute for scholarly literature. Issues surrounding the motivation of young the Study of Youth Sports (ISYS) was formed and essential athletes, optimizing coaching techniques, reducing athlete mal- descriptive studies of youth sport were conducted, scholarship treatment, the disappearing “sandlot,” performance enhancement, in the area has taken shape and expanded. Gould (1982) published life-skill development, and other topics are of great practical an influential paper in the Journal of Sport Psychology that importance and scholarly value. Note that we must be mindful characterized scholarship of practical and theoretical impact. that the youth sport context is always evolving with respect to its Such work addressed questions of practical importance, was economic footprint, accessibility, perceived social importance, empirically or theoretically grounded, was methodologically and so forth—as society changes so do the nature and standing sound, and proceeded systematically over multiple studies. He of youth sport. Of particular interest over the coming decades will concluded that continued work of this nature was needed, as was a be broader technological advances. Such advances will likely offer expanded opportunities for youth sport involvement. At the same time, those advances could introduce new ethical challenges The authors are with the Dept. of Kinesiology, Michigan State University, East associated with youth sport, attractive alternatives to involvement, Lansing, MI. Smith ([email protected]) is corresponding author. and a reframing of the boundaries of what constitutes sport. 269 270 Smith, Erickson, and Malete Considered together, we can confidently predict that there will be In the youth sport literature, PYD-oriented scholarship has ample new terrain for youth sport scholars to investigate over the used all three conceptualizations at various points and in various next 4 decades. programs of research. For example, much early work on youth The purpose of the present paper is to provide an overview of sport (though not using PYD nomenclature, which had not yet selected areas of importance and promise for future youth sport emerged) examined the features of youth sport programming that scholarship. It is possible neither to cover all promising directions promoted positive experiences for young people (e.g., Smith, nor to fully predict how the evolving landscape of youth sport, Smoll, & Curtis, 1979; see Weiss, 2016, for a review), trying to science, and broader society will shift scholarly and practical understand the social and psychological processes facilitating priorities, opportunities and challenges to knowledge advance- positive trajectories of development. Similarly, considerable ment, and what will be discovered outside of established lines research has examined the ways in which traditional youth sport of work. We can expect incremental advancements through sys- offerings and systems (i.e., in schools, communities, and sports tematic lines of research, as well as unforeseen advancements that clubs), with sport participation as their primary function, might be are the hallmark of creative problem solving and accommodation of optimized to best promote PYD in their participants (e.g., Eime, ideas from related scholarly disciplines. In this article we overview Young, Harvey, Charity, & Payne, 2013; Fraser-Thomas, Côté, & three areas where we expect knowledge advancements that will Deakin, 2005). Such efforts reflect the philosophical orientation enable us to better promote positive youth sport experiences and, in toward PYD. Finally, and reflecting the third conceptualization, turn, well-being of young athletes. We first cover potential direc- much research has targeted specifically designed programs (either tions for scholarship about positive youth development (PYD), within communities or as researcher-driven interventions) that including efforts tied to fostering economic opportunity among focus on the promotion of PYD as their primary objective, using young people. This represents work that is well underway, has been sport as a tool to facilitate that development (e.g., Weiss, 2019). productive, and contains room for further advancements. There- Common to all these conceptualizations but unique to the youth fore, it is a safe bet that youth sport will be a thriving research area sport literature, in contrast to more general youth development during the coming decades. We then discuss youth sport as a fields, is the inclusion of physical competencies as explicitly domain for addressing public health. This is an emerging area that targeted developmental outcomes within the broad range of com- is expected to bring together pediatric kinesiologists and scholars petencies encompassed by PYD (Holt, Deal, & Smyth, 2016). from other disciplinary areas to address injury surveillance, physi- These include both sport-skill and general movement competen- cal well-being, mental health, and physical activity promotion cies, as well as physical health. among young athletes. Because youth sport is a wide-reaching Regardless of its conceptualization or operationalization, a developmental context for young people, it makes perfect sense to fundamental principle of PYD is the socially and contextually expect scholarly integration with public health. Finally, we con- situated nature of youth development (Lerner, 2006). In sport and sider implications for youth sport over the coming decades of elsewhere, the development of young people is intrinsically emerging and anticipated technological advances that characterize linked to the people, environments, neighborhoods, and social what has been labeled the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR; institutions they connect with (Holt et al., 2016). Young athletes Schwab, 2015). The implications of technological developments may be influenced by or reciprocally influence these social agents on a variety of fronts (e.g., biotechnology, artificial intelligence) for and contexts, which represent integrated levels of the develop- youth sport are yet to be determined, and therefore our comments mental system (Lerner, 2006). This integration extends beyond are more speculative in this section. Nonetheless, we can expect the social and physical environments directly contacted by a nascent and unforeseen technological advancements to affect youth developing young person, whereby social, political, and eco- sport in ways that will pose opportunities and challenges to youth nomic features of societies can influence and be influenced by sport scholarship. Considering in advance how this might be young people as they come to be active and engaged (or not) expressed could enable us to more effectively leverage our schol- citizens. arly efforts to the benefit of young athletes. These theoretical conceptualizations have been leveraged in the scientific literature to the degree that PYD is arguably the predomi- PYD Through Sport nant perspective guiding psychosocially oriented research on youth sport at this point in time (Weiss, 2019). For example, the frame- An emergent approach in the youth sport literature that has gained works of Hellison (2011; TPSR—Teaching Personal and Social currency is PYD, an asset- or strength-based perspective of youth Responsibility); Petitpas, Cornelius, Van Raalte, and Jones (2005); development designed to build on and develop the characteristics and Danish, Fazio, Nellen, and Owens (2001; SUPER—Sports and capacities of young people to enable them to thrive and lead United to Promote Education and Recreation) have guided much meaningful lives in society (Lerner, Almerigi, Theokas, & Lerner, programming effort and intervention work. Similarly, the empirical 2005). This approach is often framed in opposition to a deficit- and conceptual work of Weiss on developmental sport psychology reduction approach, which seeks primarily to prevent or mitigate and PYD-specific programs (e.g., Weiss, 2004), of Gould on life- problematic behaviors and experiences. Thus, from a PYD per- skills development and coaching (e.g., Gould & Carson, 2008), and spective, youth are seen as resources to be developed, possessing of Côté on developmental pathways and sport-development systems the capacity for positive change (i.e., asset promotion), rather than (e.g., Côté & Fraser-Thomas, 2011), among numerous others, have problems to be solved (i.e., deficit reduction). In this larger shaped the direction of much of the PYD-oriented youth sport perspective, PYD can be conceptualized and operationalized in research. The collected work of these authors and others has created three primary ways (Hamilton, Hamilton, & Pittman, 2004): as a vibrant and growing field, captured in the seminal text Positive descriptive of trajectories of individual development, as a philo- Youth Development Through Sport, now in its second edition (Holt, sophical orientation to guide policies and practices related to 2016). Emerging research has also taken steps to integrate the youth development, or as direct efforts in youth development broader dimensions of young people’s development in the context programming. of the larger society. Examples include the growing lines of KR Vol. 8, No. 3, 2019  Advancing Youth Sport Scholarship 271 PYD-oriented research on youth sport for social development and populations with nondominant racial, ethnic, socioeconomic, (dis) peace (e.g., Cohen & Peachey, 2015; Massey, Whitley, Blom, & ability, and gender identities (Kochanek & Erickson, 2019). Gerstein, 2015) and the use of youth sport programming to facilitate Building off the established strengths of the field while young people’s entrepreneurial mind-sets and economic develop- working to address our current weaknesses, the next 40 years ment (e.g., Malete et al., 2019; Ratten, 2011). Notably, these provide a fantastic opportunity to establish new and productive emerging lines of research are actively contributing to the interna- avenues of research to inform real-world practice. First, we must tionalization of the PYD and youth sport literature, an important make concerted efforts to advance the theoretical rigor and preci- consideration for the state of the field. sion of our scholarship. While maintaining our connection to As with any growing research field, there are shortcomings in broader contextual frameworks (e.g., Bronfenbrenner & Morris, the extant literature. For example, while informed by many big- 2005), we should specify the processes of interaction and integra- picture frameworks (e.g., various ecological- and systems-based tion across ecological levels as related to developmental experi- models; see Holt et al., 2016, and Weiss, 2019), the field arguably ences and outcomes for young people in sport. We need to carefully lacks a true, intrinsically generated theoretical base. Extant frame- choose appropriate research methodologies that will enhance the works are often used to justify what might be characterized as a strengths and precision of the complex PYD framework. We also scattershot or “kitchen sink” selection of variables, without funda- have to create highly innovative approaches that could address the mental rationales for their role in youth development, their predicted complex PYD ecosystem. For example, the use of observational relationships to one another, or how they might capture interactions systems that capture moment-to-moment exchanges between coa- across systems or ecological levels that are posited to drive devel- ches and athletes can enable more fine-grained understanding of, opment. This has contributed to inconsistencies in how PYD has and theorizing about, social processes in youth sport (Erickson & been operationalized and important constructs have been measured. Côté, 2013). Second, we must work to balance and integrate asset- As such, our conclusions often remain at the level of broad general- promotion and deficit-reduction approaches into a more cohesive izations, rather than illuminating precise developmental processes in and phenomenologically representative whole, reckoning with a predictive or nuanced fashion. While this is not unusual for an the full spectrum of youth sport experiences and outcomes. Third, emergent and multidimensional framework, if not addressed soon it we must more directly challenge our implicit assumptions about could inhibit movement toward a more coherent theory and the what constitutes “positive” in PYD, with an explicit understanding translation of the research into practical applications for the youth of whose voices and worldviews are represented (or not) and sport setting. how that may facilitate or constrain the potential of our field to In reacting to the predominantly deficit-focused youth devel- promote just and equitable outcomes for all young people. Greater opment work that characterized much scholarship before the turn of use of participatory scholarship, whereby young people shape the twenty-first century (with notable exceptions in early youth the objectives and direction of research and programming, would sport research; Weiss, 2016), another challenge has been intro- offer meaningful advancements in the research on youth sport (see duced—the pendulum of youth sport research has arguably swung Jacquez, Vaughn, & Wagner, 2013). Finally, we should give more so far in the other direction that we are missing part of the larger attention to the larger social spheres in which PYD through sport youth development picture. Although the focus on the promotion occurs. There is much value in understanding how PYD ap- of positive experiences and developmental trajectories is certainly proaches in sport may contribute to not only youth development warranted, to borrow a metaphor from medicine, investing in the but also the social, civic, and economic spheres in which young prevention of health problems in no way warrants closing hospitals. people live. Research on the amelioration of negative experiences such as athlete maltreatment (Kerr, Battaglia, & Stirling, 2019) and aspects Youth Sport and Public Health of ill-being such as burnout in highly engaged athletes (DiFiori et al., 2014; Smith, Pacewicz, & Raedeke, 2019) is also essential Over the coming decades we believe that youth sport will find to fully realize our goal of promoting developmentally adaptive closer alignment with public health. A public health perspective youth sport experiences that maximize well-being. To deemphasize emphasizes the promotion and protection of peoples’ health at a the study of these negative aspects of youth sport in the name of community level (American Public Health Association, 2019). PYD is to hamstring our field’s relevance to the lived experience Thus, there is interest in promoting healthy behaviors and pre- of the people for whom we work. It sets us up to “overpromise venting disease and injury. The community-level emphasis is and underdeliver” in offering practical impact for youth sport expressed in key areas of public health work, such as biostatistics, (Gould, 2016). epidemiology, environmental health sciences, health policy and The power dynamics inherent in determining whose voice is management, and social and behavioral sciences. Accordingly, heard with respect to what is defined as “positive” have also yet to broad-based data availability is needed for effective promotion of be truly reckoned with in our field. Underrepresentation is present public health, as well as facility in understanding environmental, regarding both the developing young people themselves and as policy, and social contributors to health. There is much room for nondominant minority and other less studied groups in society. youth sport scholarship to grow in these arenas. With respect to young athletes, it is perhaps ironic that, given the Youth sport research has largely been conducted within the theoretical focus of PYD on empowerment, most of our efforts are traditional framework of kinesiology and has expanded as kinesi- heavily driven by adults. Youth might be allowed to offer input, but ology subdisciplines have emerged and other disciplines have only after the overall objectives of sport programming have been taken interest in sport as a developmental context. However, most defined and set by adults (Coakley, 2011). Similarly, there has been youth sport scholarship and practice does not align with a public little discussion of how our assumptions about the specific devel- health perspective. Given the ubiquity of sport involvement and opmental outcomes and life skills that we are promoting may reflect broader public health concerns with physical inactivity and injury, only status quo, mainstream views of “positive” social functioning. there is already some movement in this direction. Over the past We are potentially ignoring and marginalizing the lived realities of 25 years a significant number of kinesiology programs have moved KR Vol. 8, No. 3, 2019 272 Smith, Erickson, and Malete into schools of public health, developed curricula that draw on core 2019), and broader surveillance efforts in youth sport are critical to areas of public health, and oriented themselves toward the study of informing sport-injury knowledge and practice (e.g., Kerr, Cortes, physical activity and inactivity (Ainsworth & Hooker, 2015). et al., 2019; Kirkwood, Hughes, & Pollock, 2019). Other research Athletic training has also recently made deliberate efforts to raise has explored sport as a context for educating young people about awareness that injury surveillance and other activities of its practi- HIV/AIDS (Maro, Roberts, & Sørensen, 2009; Ndeche & Chama, tioners fall within the public health arena (Hoffman et al., 2016). 2016) and preventing alcohol use (Werch et al., 2003). Sport also is Accordingly, there is a growing awareness of the value of the a context that has been harnessed for promotion of social and life public health perspective to studying issues of concern in sport. skills in youth, as well as community building, which has various The promotion of physical activity through youth sport is one potential implications such as mitigating violence, promoting area that is likely to continue to show growth in scholarship and educational attainment, and fostering individual and community public health orientation. This area has received conceptual atten- well-being (Anderson-Butcher, 2019). Adopting the perspective tion for some time (see Brustad et al., 2008; Welk, 1999), and and tools of public health can help advance these areas of youth budding evidence suggests that youth sport has the potential to help sport scholarship and contribute to broader reach and impact of young people meet daily physical activity guidelines and to offer a prevention and promotion efforts. pathway to habitual activity in adulthood (Pfeiffer & Wierenga, An area of public health interest that is primed for future youth 2019). These are considered desirable outcomes in light of the sport work is mental health. Contemporary demands on young connection of physical activity to obesity, bone density, self- people and their parents along with concern about rising depression esteem, and other markers of physical and mental health rates and suicide have resulted in increased media attention to (Stensel, Gorely, & Biddle, 2008). Yet, research on these issues mental health and the nature of childhood (e.g., Brooks, 2019). In requires much more development. There are at least two important addressing matters regarding the culture and accessibility of youth challenges to accomplishing this end. One challenge is that there sport, and attending to risks of youth sport involvement, there is has been an absence of thoughtfully articulated, if communicated at potential to meaningfully contribute to public health (Vella, 2019). all, treatment of sport in physical activity policy (Berg, Warner, & Yet, up to this point in time, promotion of public mental health Das, 2015). In the United States, an encouraging sign is that in the through sport has not been a prominent target of public health most recent update of the National Plan for Physical Activity, sport policy and, when addressed in such policy, lacks clarity with is explicitly included as one of nine sectors that have strategies, respect to measurable goals (Smith, Jones, Houghton, & Duffell, tactics, and objectives for physical activity promotion (National 2016). Moreover, some have argued that interpreting modern Physical Activity Plan Alliance, 2016). The other challenge is that science is complex and has resulted in a failure on the part of national sport-governing bodies tend to prioritize development of practicing physicians, and especially the mass media, to critically elite talent over broad-based sport participation, even when broad appraise the literature on physical activity and mental health, participation is stated as a core goal (Berg et al., 2015). This is why preventing the translation of guidelines into clinical practice the work of entities like the ISYS is so important—it offers a (Ekkekakis, 2019). With respect to youth sport as a context for counterweight to the prevailing cultural orientation toward sport. promotion of mental health, an additional challenge may be its Of particular value would be efforts to understand how poli- strong association with physical activity, which is often framed as cies can be crafted to best meet the developmental goals of youth something that is “good for you.” This contrasts with a core sport and broad public health interests. This would go a long way motivation of sport involvement, which is to “have fun.” Sport toward addressing important issues tied to youth sport culture is attractive for the hedonic rewards and opportunity for social (Gould, 2019) and enable synergy with public health goals. There interaction as much as any health benefits (Berg et al., 2015), as is are critiques of extant policy efforts, however. For example, an well known from the literature on youth sport participation moti- examination of effectiveness evidence for investment by the United vation (Visek et al., 2015; Weiss & Amorose, 2008). Much Kingdom in sport as a public health intervention shows that sport potential exists to meaningfully advance this area of public health participation has declined in the population while other means of interest, but this will require careful attention to what we know physical activity have increased (Weed, 2016). This raises ques- about youth sport and the barriers to broad-based promotion of tions about the opportunity cost of failing to invest in the promotion mental health. of potentially more effective policies that do not emphasize sport. Effectively moving forward will require attention to various In a context of limited resources, sport must show its relative considerations. We note several here, with the understanding importance and value. Another critique is that distinct norms and that the constraints of this article prevent a comprehensive list values of community-based sport organizations and public health or extensive treatment of each. As a first consideration, the agencies can challenge effective partnership despite these bodies’ youth sport and public health contexts are multifaceted and there- mutual interest in promoting well-being (Misener & Misener, fore require a multilayered approach to successful knowledge 2016). For example, the performance or competition agenda development and practice. As noted in the earlier section on of sport can be viewed as inconsistent with a health-promotion PYD, thoughtful use of systems and ecological perspectives on agenda. In light of these challenges, future research by youth sport human functioning will be necessary (e.g., Broderick, 1993; scholars would benefit from framing sport as offering public health Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2005). Beyond simply assessing and value beyond simply promotion of physical activity and acquiring addressing constructs at multiple levels of the youth ecology, it is public health proficiency, which will enable more effective colla- important to address the interface and interactions of these levels. borations that benefit the design and evaluation of sport-based For example, the exchanges between and collective impact of policies. coaches and parents on young athletes may depend on family or Youth sport is certainly linked to public health matters other community resources, cultural expectations surrounding deference than physical activity promotion. As noted earlier in this section, to parents, or characteristics of young athletes, such as competence injury is a salient public health concern. Concussion in sport has level. As an additional consideration, advancements in youth sport drawn much interest from scholars (Covassin, Petit, & Anderson, and public health will require expanded surveillance efforts to KR Vol. 8, No. 3, 2019  Advancing Youth Sport Scholarship 273 understand participation levels, injuries, organizational and com- and relate to one another and will be characterized by an erosion of munity characteristics, and various outcomes along with capacity the boundaries between the digital, physical, and biological to manage and make use of big data. This will necessitate devel- domains—and arguably also the psychological and social domains. opmentally informed measurement (Smith, Dorsch, & Monsma, This revolution has begun and is presently characterized by 2012), concerted policy efforts, and overcoming constraints to developments in artificial intelligence, robotics, biotech, the inter- local capacity for youth sport organizations and public health net of things, and so forth. It will be disruptive in ways that foster agencies to collaborate (Misener & Misener, 2016). This is espe- innovation and efficiency, and in ways that pose ethical challenges cially true in the United States, where there is no current system for and implications for both the narrowing and the widening of assessing levels of youth sport participation or outcomes. We also societal inequities. There are a variety of ways the 4IR may affect see value in considering a universal design approach to sport that youth sport, and we present some possibilities here, recognizing enables widespread participation for youth with and without dis- that several years from now our ideas may sorely demonstrate our abilities (Blauwet, 2019), pursuing an understanding of how sport- lack of prescience. based social networks connect to health (Smith & Christakis, Considering sport as an opportunity to engage in physical 2008), and attending to the enhancement of knowledge translation activity, the 4IR offers both positive and detrimental possibilities. in youth sport so as to effectively disseminate information of For example, autonomous vehicles present the opportunity to much sustainable impact (Holt et al., 2018). more efficiently use space that is presently allotted to streets and An encouraging development in the United States is an effort parking. Cities stand to reclaim land as a result of this efficiency to develop a National Youth Sports Strategy. The Office of Disease (Plumer, 2016), and if youth sport advocates are effective in Prevention and Health Promotion in the U.S. Department of Health shaping policy for how space is reclaimed this could offer benefits and Human Services hosted a listening session on April 4, 2019, in the form of greater access to sport by those in densely populated that included presentations from various experts on the current areas. As the technology advances to fully realize the potential state of sport, the various levels of programming from local safety benefits of automated vehicles, there also could be a reduc- through national, nontraditional programming, and others (Office tion in parental concerns about traffic. Such concerns are presently of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 2019a). A draft youth an impediment to young people’s ability to access play spaces and sport strategy is being developed that includes priority areas of independently travel from the home (Smith, Troped, McDonough, increasing awareness of youth sport’s benefits, promoting private & DeFreese, 2015). In addition, constraints on children’s play have and public promotion strategies, developing metrics, and recruiting arisen from parents’ concerns about the erosion of a sense of volunteers (Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, community and, relatedly, the lack of supervision of children by 2019b). Particularly noteworthy is the consideration of a breadth of adult neighbors and community members (Holt, Lee, Millar, & potential outcomes that extends beyond physical activity behavior. Spence, 2015). With enhanced technologies to monitor the location The speakers, including Daniel Gould, the current ISYS director, of children, who they are with, and their well-being, it will be spoke to the broader potential contributions of youth sport to health interesting to ascertain how parents choose to use the technology. and well-being. With governmental backing and thoughtfully Will parents use it to free their children to explore or use it to more designed policy, we see great potential for knowledge and practice tightly control their children’s experiences? To the degree that advancements in the area of youth sport and public health. youth sport researchers can find ways to nudge parents toward the former, youth sport will be the beneficiary and far healthier. Youth Sport and the 4IR On the other hand, to the degree that electronic games become more realistic, immersive, and meaningfully social, young people This final section of our paper is a bit more speculative in nature, as may show progressively less interest in accessing such newly it requires anticipating what youth sport might look like up to available spaces. That is, present-day concerns about the appeal 4 decades from now. Just as there have been significant changes in of electronic games and social media to young people may youth sport over the past 40 years and aspects of youth sport that intensify. There is currently a strong emergence of eSports, which have remained consistent, we can expect the same moving forward. share features of traditional sports even if there is presently debate Many of the changes in youth sport during the past several decades on whether they should be considered sport (see Jenny, Manning, owe to the direct and indirect effects of advancements in technol- Keiper, & Olrich, 2017). Individuals participate on teams, may ogy, as well as social and economic trends such as the decline in have uniforms, and experience many of the other features we funding for public schools and recreation departments. It is widely consider characteristic of traditional sport. There are professional expected that the coming decades will also be marked by rapid and college opportunities in this arena (see Israelsen-Hartley, 2019; technological changes and associated economic changes. The Shaw, 2018). I (Smith) recently was in a U.S. airport and saw such a challenge, then, for youth sport scholars is to anticipate the benefits team traveling to a competition. They carried themselves through and detrimental aspects of this change with respect to the develop- the airport with every bit the athletic swagger one would expect of a mental needs of young athletes. What core aspects of the sport travel soccer or basketball team. If eSports can fulfill the need for experience will we wish to retain, to modify, or to engineer that will identity that traditional sports have historically provided, they maximize benefits of youth sport? To what degree will young represent a challenge to youth sport as we understand it today athletes have (regain!) control of their youth sport experience? Will as a potential source of healthful physical activity. To mitigate this, there be new alternatives that compete with sport for young traditional youth sport may need to evolve in ways that integrate people’s attention? The questions certainly outnumber any defini- with the developing features of electronic game technology. Think tive answers, but we believe that considering the possibilities is a Pokémon GO, absent the mindless walking into traffic and other valuable exercise. contemporary safety hazards that will be anticipated and mitigated We are entering a period of change that has been deemed the by future advancements in artificial intelligence. Virtual reality and Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) by the World Economic Forum wearable technologies may become enhanced in ways that not only (Schwab, 2015). The 4IR is expected to change how we work, live, provide movement and other data that supplement sport and KR Vol. 8, No. 3, 2019 274 Smith, Erickson, and Malete activity experiences but also offer hedonic and social value in ways within the domains of PYD, public health, and the wide-ranging that are inherently more motivating. For instance, advances in effects of the 4IR. We trust that some of the ideas, suggestions, and virtual reality and video modeling technologies have enabled considerations raised in this paper will be helpful to scholars as they transdisciplinary applications that range from art and entertainment tackle the next wave of research challenges and work to contribute to life-changing interventions such as teaching children with to the well-being of young people. We are particularly interested in autism spectrum disorder (Fitzgerald et al., 2018). seeing how youth sport scholarship unfolds and how it translates Advances in bioengineering and medicine can be expected that into deliberate policy and other efforts that make youth sport more would have positive and potentially ethically challenging impacts robust, healthy, and developmentally adaptive. As faculty associ- on youth sport. Advances that enable accelerated injury recovery, ated with the ISYS, we are committed to conducting research and replacement of deteriorated or traumatized body parts, and reduc- research-based outreach efforts that maximize the benefits and tion or elimination of the side effects of drug administration can minimize the negative aspects of sport for young people, whatever reduce the negative implications of sport injury. At the same time, the form youth sport takes in the future. this could lead to riskier behavior on the part of athletes. The body becomes further objectified as a machine, with fixable parts. With safer drug administration comes safer doping. This could serve to Acknowledgments reduce barriers to using performance-enhancing drugs to attain This paper is based on a presentation given at the Michigan State competitive goals. Such concerns are not unique to the 4IR, with University Institute for the Study of Youth Sports 40th Anniversary an extended history of efforts to push human performance limits Conference. We are grateful to the many colleagues in attendance who through science (see Hoberman, 1992). However, accelerated shared their perspectives on the current status of youth sport scholarship advances like these could provide new enticement to parents and the future opportunities and challenges for advancing understanding and young athletes that change the nature of youth sport. Add and practice of youth sport. Also, we are grateful to Daniel Gould and genetic-editing developments to this context, and implications arise David Wiggins for providing feedback on a draft of this paper. ranging from children having even less control than they do now over their sport involvement (no more control than picking one’s parents!)—they are engineered to have certain athletic attributes— to new rules for banding or matching of children that consider References genetic composition and not just traditional age banding. Ainsworth, B.E., & Hooker, S.P. (2015). The fusion of public health into Researchers and professionals must consider these and other kinesiology. Kinesiology Review, 4, 322–328. doi:10.1123/kr.2015- possibilities to ensure a healthy and equitable future for youth 0032 sport. A notable concern is that inequities will be exacerbated with American Public Health Association. (2019). What is public health? the 4IR. 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