Developmental Psychology DEVP211 Past Paper 2024-2025 PDF

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY DEVP211 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM HUMAN DEVELOPMENT A WHAT IS HUMAN DEVELOPMENT TOPIC OVERVIEW HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Systematic process...

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY DEVP211 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM HUMAN DEVELOPMENT A WHAT IS HUMAN DEVELOPMENT TOPIC OVERVIEW HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Systematic processes of change and A. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT stability in people from conception to death a. Lifespan Development b. Life-span Perspective DEVELOPMENT CAN BE… B. GOALS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Positive — learning a. Describe Negative — regressing b. Explain c. Predict When does development start? d. Intervene Human development starts with the zygote C. BASIC CONCEPTS OF HUMAN (i.e., fertilization), not with the infant or DEVELOPMENT newborn child. a. Domains of Development i. Physical ii. Cognitive A1 LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT iii. Psychosocial b. Periods of Lifespan i. Social construction Comprising the entire human lifespan “from c. Influences on Development womb to tomb” i. Nature vs Nurture Human development is a lifelong process ii. Maturation D. CONTEXTS OF DEVELOPMENT a. Family A2 LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE b. Socioeconomic Status c. Culture View that development is a lifelong, i. Individualistic multidimensional, multidirectional, ii. Collectivistic plastic, multidisciplinary, and d. Ethnicity and Race contextual process involving growth, e. Historical Context maintenance, and regulation of loss f. Normative and Nonnormative Influences i. Normative Age-graded Is there development in death? ii. Normative History-graded Yes, in the people left behind. 1. Historical DSM-5TR included Grief Disorder generation iii. Nonnormative influences g. Timing of influence i. Imprinting B GOALS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ii. Critical Period iii. Sensitive Period E. LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENTAL B1 DESCRIBE APPROACH a. Lifelong b. Multidimensional What is the behavior? c. Multidirectional When was the behavior established? d. Biology and cultural shift How is the behavior at a certain age? e. Changing resource allocation f. Plasticity Norms, or averages, are established for the g. Historical and cultural context behavior of children at various ages. PAGE 1 DEVP211 | 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY DEVP211 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM COGNITIVE B2 EXPLAIN Learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity Mental processes and how the brain Why is the behavior like that? functions B3 PREDICT PSYCHOSOCIAL Emotions and personality Social relationships What will happen? What is the future of this behavior? Human development is messy. It is a complex and tangled web of multiple influences and their B3 INTERVENE interactions. What treatment plan is most applicable? Eclectic approach combines different methods ○ Medication into one therapy session. ○ Psychotherapy How can we control possible damage Equifinality — different causes, one brought about by this behavior? outcome (ex. trauma, family problems, and melancholia leading to depression) C BASIC CONCEPTS OF Multifinality — one cause, different HUMAN DEVELOPMENT outcomes (ex. burnout leading to anxiety, depression, and other disorders) BASIC CONCEPTS C2 PERIODS OF LIFESPAN Domains of Physical Development Cognitive SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION Psychosocial Division of the lifespan into periods Concept or practice invented by a particular Periods of Social construction culture or society Lifespan Influences on Nature vs Nurture Today’s social construction is a product of Development Maturation emerging knowledge brought about by globalization. C1 DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT 8 STAGES OF LIFE 1. Prenatal 2. Infancy 3. Early childhood What are domains? 4. Middle childhood These are intertwined changes or progress 5. Adolescence that affect one another. 6. Young adulthood 7. Middle adulthood PHYSICAL or PHYSIOLOGICAL 8. Late adulthood Growth of the body and brain, sensory capacities, motor skills, and health Most observable change Stages of the lifespan may not exist in many cultures or may be conceptualized differently. PAGE 2 DEVP211 | 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY DEVP211 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM 120 years ago, there was no concept yet of D CONTEXTS OF DEVELOPMENT adolescence. The idea of adolescence is relatively new to Developmental Psychology. D1 FAMILY Adolescence is a critical period that serves as a summary of one’s childhood and an overview of one’s adulthood. NUCLEAR Two-generational Consisting of the parent(s) and the child(ren) C3 INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT POLYGAMY One parent (commonly the father) is married NATURE VS NURTURE to multiple spouses Common in Muslim families Nature Heredity EXTENDED Biological factors Multigenerational Genetic roll of the dice Traditional family form Consisting of the grandparents, aunts, uncles, Nurture Environment cousins, and other relatives in one household Social factors Common in Filipino families Starts at conception with the prenatal environment in the womb D2 SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS Francis Galton, a eugenicist, was the proponent Social class based on family income and the of the concept of nature versus nurture. educational and occupational levels of the adults MATURATION POVERTY Unfolding of a natural sequence of Poor life conditions → poor emotional state of physical changes and behavior patterns the parents → poor parenting → poor child Influence certain biological processes (ex. development brain development) throughout life Cannot be controlled and stops only at death RISK FACTORS Conditions that increase the likelihood of MATURATION IN BOYS & GIRLS a negative outcome Threats to well-being multiply when several Boys risk factors are present Spermarche or Semenarche (12-14 y.o.) ○ First ejaculation without Threats to emotional health advance maturity, viable sperm cell while threats to physical health delay it. ○ Nocturnal emission (wet dreams) Puberty D3 CULTURE Girls Thelarche (9-10 y.o.) ○ Breast budding Way of life Puberty (6 months after) Customs, traditions, laws, knowledge, beliefs, Menarche values, language, and physical products ○ First menstruation Learned, shared, and transmitted among members of a particular social group PAGE 3 DEVP211 | 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY DEVP211 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM INDIVIDUALISTIC Priority on personal goals and self ETHNIC GLOSS potential Occidental or Western view Stereotype Indifference of thinking COLLECTIVISTIC Prejudice Indifference of feelings and Concerned with collective goals and group emotions dynamics People view themselves with respect to their Discrimination Negative behaviors and relationships with others actions resulting from Oriental or Eastern view stereotypes and prejudice Stigma Cycle of discrimination D4 ETHNICITY AND RACE RACE D5 HISTORICAL CONTEXT Concept of dividing people into groups on the basis of various sets of physical characteristics Influences tied to time and place can affect Ascribing social meaning to groups (ex. White, the course of people’s lives Black, Asian) D6 NORMATIVE AND ETHNICITY NONNORMATIVE INFLUENCES Cultural factors, expression, and identification Includes nationality, regional culture, NORMATIVE AGE-GRADED INFLUENCES ancestry, language Highly similar for people in a particular age group Timing of biological events is fairly IMPORTANT CONCEPTS OF ETHNICITY predictable within a normal range (ex. menstruation) Ethnic People united by a distinctive culture, group ancestry, religion, language, or NORMATIVE HISTORY-GRADED INFLUENCES national origin Significant events that shape the behavior and attitudes of a historical generation (ex. Has a sense of shared identity, WWII, Covid-19 pandemic) attitudes, beliefs, and values HISTORICAL GENERATION Ethnic Ethnic groups with national or minorities cultural traditions different from the Cohort Group of people born at about majority the same time Often affected by prejudice and discrimination Historical Group of people who Generation experience a major event at a formative time in their lives Ethnic Overgeneralization that obscures gloss or blurs variations within an ethnic Combination of different group cohorts Simplistic categorical label used to refer to ethnocultural groups PAGE 4 DEVP211 | 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY DEVP211 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM SENSITIVE PERIOD HOWE AND STRAUSS Gradual Time when a developing person is especially 2000–Present New Silent Generation / Gen Z responsive to certain kinds of experiences (ex. a child learning to crawl, talk, socialize 1980–2000 Millennials / Gen Y with other people other than family) 1965–1979 Thirteeners / Gen X E THE LIFE-SPAN 1946–1964 Baby Boomers DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACH 1925–1945 The Silent Generation Development is… 1900–1924 The G.I. Generation LIFELONG Each period is affected by what happened NONNORMATIVE INFLUENCES before and will affect what is to come Unusual events that have a major impact on No period is more or less important the individual because they disturb the than any other expected sequence of the life cycle Typical events that happen at an atypical MULTIDIMENSIONAL time (ex. death of a parent at a certain age, Occurs along multiple interacting passing the board exams, going to Baguio) dimensions: biological, psychological, and Atypical events (ex. surviving a plane social crash) MULTIDIRECTIONAL D7 TIMING OF INFLUENCE As people gain in one area, they may lose in another Positive or negative growth IMPRINTING Result of the readiness of an organism’s RELATIVE INFLUENCES OF BIOLOGY AND nervous system to acquire certain information CULTURE SHIFT OVER THE LIFESPAN during a brief critical period in early life Balance between biology and culture changes INVOLVES CHANGING RESOURCE ALLOCATION Konrad Lorenz (1957), an Australian zoologist, Individuals choose to invest their resources in showed that newly hatched goslings will varying ways instinctively follow the first moving object they see. In childhood and young adulthood, resources go to growth; in old old age, to regulation CRITICAL PERIOD of loss Abrupt Specific time when a given event, or its SHOWS PLASTICITY absence, has a specific impact on development Many abilities can be improved significantly (ex. full development of visual capabilities with training and practice from 8 months to 3 years old) INFLUENCED BY HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXT Necessary event does not occur during critical Each person develops within multiple contexts period → normal development will not occur → (i.e., circumstances or conditions abnormal patterns that may be irreversible defined by maturation, time, and place) PLASTICITY Modifiability of performance PAGE 5 DEVP211 | 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY DEVP211 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM THEORY AND RESEARCH A1 ISSUE 1: ACTIVE VS REACTIVE DEVELOPMENT TOPIC OVERVIEW ACTIVE A. BASIC THEORETICAL ISSUES People create experiences for themselves a. Active vs Reactive People are motivated to learn about the world b. Continuous vs Discontinuous People are responsible for their own change and progress B. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES a. Psychoanalytic ORGANISMIC MODEL b. Learning ○ People are active, growing c. Cognitive organisms who set their own d. Contextual development in motion e. Evolutionary/Sociobiological REACTIVE C. RESEARCH METHODS The developing child is a ‘hungry sponge’ a. Major Methods of Data Collection that soaks up experiences i. Self-report Development is a culmination of ii. Naturalistic observation environment influences iii. Laboratory observation iv. Behavioral and MECHANISTIC MODEL performance measures ○ People are like machines that react b. Basic Research designs to environmental input i. Case study ○ Development is like a jigsaw puzzle ii. Ethnographic study iii. Correlational study A2 ISSUE 2: CONTINUOUS VS iv. Experiment DISCONTINUOUS DEVELOPMENT c. Other Types of Study i. Cross-sectional ii. Longitudinal CONTINUOUS iii. Sequential Development is always governed by the same processes Gradual refinement and extension of early skills into later abilities Proposed by learning theorists and A BASIC THEORETICAL ISSUES information-processing theorists Quantitative change (ex. height, weight, learning) THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT Set of logically related concepts or DISCONTINUOUS statements that seek to describe and explain Development at different points in the life development and predict the kinds of behavior span is different in nature that might occur under certain conditions Development occurs in distinct stages Hypotheses, explanations, predictions Change in kind, structure, or organization that are presumed to be true and may be Qualitative change (ex. being pregnant vs falsified depending on the context not being pregnant) THEORY VS HYPOTHESIS Theory Have underwent testing Hypothesis Preliminary step for creating theory PAGE 6 DEVP211 | 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY DEVP211 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM B THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES 5 STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT 5 MAJOR PERSPECTIVES Oral Birth to 1 year 1. Psychoanalytic Stage 2. Learning Babies whose needs are not met may 3. Cognitive grow up as nail-biters or smokers 4. Contextual 5. Evolutionary/Sociobiological Anal 1 to 3 years Stage B1 PSYCHOANALYTIC Toddlers with very strict toilet training may be either obsessively clean or defiantly messy Focuses on unconscious emotions and drives Phallic 3 to 6 years Stage SIGMUND FREUD Sexual attachment to opposite sex Viennese physician parent — Oedipus Complex (Male) Originator of psychoanalytic perspective Electra Complex (Female) Psychosexual development Believed in reactive development and Latency 6 years to puberty qualitative changes over time Stage Period of relative emotional calm, PROVINCES OF THE MIND intellectual and social exploration Id Governs newborns Genital Puberty to adult Pleasure principle Stage Sexual urges resurface to flow in Ego Mediator between id and socially approved channels superego Reality principle ERIK ERIKSON Psychosocial development Superego Conscience Emphasized the interaction between Socially approved ‘shoulds’ psychological and environmental factors and ‘should nots’ Viewed development as a lifelong process Moral principle Importance of personal identity PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS ○ Issues must be satisfactorily resolved for healthy ego development ○ Positive qualities should dominate but some degree of negative qualities is still needed for optimal development ○ If resolved, one may gain a virtue or strength (hope, autonomy, love) Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory follows epigenetic principle, which states that crises on the first stage must be resolved before going to the next stage. PAGE 7 DEVP211 | 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY DEVP211 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM ERIK ERIKSON’S STAGE THEORY B2 LEARNING Infancy Conflict: Basic trust vs mistrust (0–1) Development is a result of learning, a relatively Resolution: Hope long-lasting change based on experience or adaptation to the environment Early Conflict: Autonomy vs shame Focus on behavior, which is observable, Childhood countable, and confers more objectively (1–3) Resolution: Will Development is continuous, mechanistic, and quantitative Play Age Conflict: Initiative vs guilt (3–6) BEHAVIORISM Resolution: Purpose Mechanistic theory that describes behavior as a predictable response to experience School Age Conflict: Industry vs Inferiority Emphasizes the predictable role of (6–12) environment in causing observable behavior Resolution: Competence CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Ivan Pavlov Adolescence Conflict: Identity vs Confusion Response to a stimulus is elicited after (12–19) repeated association with another Resolution: Fidelity stimulus that normally elicits the response Early Conflict: Intimacy vs Isolation Adulthood (20–25) Resolution: Love Adulthood Conflict: Generativity vs (26–64) Stagnation Resolution: Care Old Age Conflict: Integrity vs Despair (65–death) Resolution: Wisdom SYNTONIC VS DYSTONIC ELEMENTS Syntonic Positive qualities element High s.e. = maladjustment OPERANT CONDITIONING B.F. Skinner Dystonic Negative qualities Consequences of involuntary behavior element High d.e. = malignancy REINFORCEMENT VS PUNISHMENT Reinforcement Consequence that increases Imbalance of syntonic and dystonic elements lead to the likelihood of the behavior core pathology (maladjustment or malignancy). Punishment Consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior PAGE 8 DEVP211 | 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY DEVP211 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Something Something ○ Also called modeling “bad” “good” ○ People learn appropriate social (aversive) (rewarding) behavior by observing and imitating models ○ Bobo doll experiment Giving Positive Positive (+) Punishment Reinforcement (behavior is (behavior is B3 COGNITIVE weakened) strengthened) Qualitative changes in thought occur with Taking Negative Negative development Away Reinforcement Punishment (–) (behavior is (behavior is Children are active initiators of development strengthened) weakened) Social interaction is central to development Human beings are processors of symbols PIAGETIAN APPROACH 2 Types of Positive Reinforcement Jean piaget 1. Extrinsic motivation — material things Cognitive Stage Theory 2. Intrinsic motivation — validation, praise, Development is organismic — a product of recognition children’s attempts to understand and act upon their world Reinforcement is most effective when it Qualitative development immediately follows a behavior. If a response is no longer reinforced, it will eventually be STEPS IN ADAPTATION OF SCHEMAS extinguished (extinction). Organization Tendency to create categories SOCIAL LEARNING (COGNITIVE) THEORY Albert Bandura Schemes — ways of Development is bidirectional (reciprocal organizing information determinism) Adaptation How children learn and handle RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM information in light of what ○ The person acts on the world as the they already know world acts on the person ○ Aims to attain self-efficacy or Assimilation — taking in new maximize self potential information and incorporating it to existing cognitive Accommodation — adjusting cognitive structures to fit new information Equilibration Constant striving for a stable balance; motivates shift between assimilation and accommodation Disequilibrium — state of imbalance when encountering information that requires us to develop or modify schema PAGE 9 DEVP211 | 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY DEVP211 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT ○ Gap between what children are already able to do by themselves and what they can do with assistance SCAFFOLDING ○ Supportive assistance given by parents, teachers, or other adults to a child when doing tasks 4 STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Sensorimotor Birth – 2 years Knowledge of the world is based on senses and motor skills Preoperational 2 – 6 years Thought How to use symbols like words and numbers Concrete 7 years – early adolescence INFORMATION-PROCESSING APPROACH Operational Explains cognitive development by analyzing Thought Understanding and the processes involved in making sense of application of logical incoming information and performing tasks operations effectively Organismic framework that supports a wide Formal Adolescence – beyond range of theories and research Operational Compares the brain to a computer Thought Abstract thinking, dealing ○ Inputs — sensory impressions with hypothetical situations, ○ Outputs — behaviors speculation of possibilities, thinking outside the box B4 CONTEXTUAL Out of sight, out of mind. Development is understood in its social Infants lack object permanence or the context ability to know that objects continue to exist The individual is an inseparable part of the even though they can no longer be seen or environment heard. BIOECOLOGICAL THEORY SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY Urie Bronfenbrenner Lev Vygotsky Set of rings (5 levels of environmental Social and cultural processes guide influence) with the developing child in the children’s cognitive development middle Adults or more advanced peers must The child is an active shaper of development help direct and organize children’s learning Organismic development Individual difference variables (age, sex, health, abilities, temperament) are present PAGE 10 DEVP211 | 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY DEVP211 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM B5 EVOLUTIONARY/SOCIOBIOLOGICAL Influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution Draws on findings of anthropology, ecology, genetics, anthology, and evolutionary psychology Explains the adaptive or survival value of behaviors NATURAL SELECTION Charles Darwin Small incremental changes in passed down traits (physical, behavioral, psychological) result in change Tool that the natural world uses to shape 5 LEVELS OF evolutionary processes ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE 3 major postulates ○ Organisms vary Microsystem Most intimate ○ There are never enough resources for Daily environment (home, all organisms to survive work, school, ○ Individual differences in organisms neighborhood) are heritable Face-to-face interactions (siblings, parents, friends, The phrase survival of the fittest was coined by classmates, spouses, philosopher Herbert Spencer. colleagues, employers) Mesosystem Interlocking influence of ETHOLOGY microsystems Study of adaptive behaviors of animal ex. parent has a bad day species in natural contexts at work → negative interactions with child EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY Focus on humans Exosystem Apply darwinian principles to human Interactions between a behavior microsystem and an outside system or COGNITIVE ADAPTATIONS institution (ex. rules and Psychological products of natural laws by the government) selection in humans Macrosystem Overarching cultural patterns (beliefs, SUMMARY ideologies, economic and political systems) Theory Organismic/ Continuous/ Mechanistic Discontinuous Chronosystem Broadest Perpendicular dimension Psychosexual Mechanistic Discontinuous of time Changes occur as time Psychosocial Mechanistic Discontinuous marches on Normative history-graded Behaviorism Mechanistic Continuous influences PAGE 11 DEVP211 | 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY DEVP211 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM LABORATORY OBSERVATION SUMMARY Participants are observed in laboratory (i.e., controlled conditions) Theory Organismic/ Continuous/ No attempt to manipulate behavior Mechanistic Discontinuous Provides good description of behavior Offers greater control than naturalistic Social Mechanistic Continuous observation Learning Subject to observer bias (Cognitive) BEHAVIORAL AND PERFORMANCE MEASURES Cognitive Organismic Discontinuous Participants are tested on abilities, skills, Stage knowledge, competencies, or physical responses Sociocultural Continuous Provides objectively measurable information Avoids subjective distortions Information- Organismic Continuous Cannot measure attitudes or other Processing non-behavioral phenomena Bioecological Organismic Discontinuous C2 BASIC RESEARCH DESIGNS CASE STUDY C RESEARCH METHODS In-depth study of an individual Provides detailed picture of a person’s Researchers in human development work behavior and development within 2 methodological traditions: Can generate hypotheses qualitative and quantitative Conclusions are not directly testable Cannot establish cause and effect Each methodological tradition has different goals ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY and different ways of seeing and interpreting reality. In-depth study of a culture or subculture Can test universality of developmental phenomena C1 MAJOR METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION Subject to observer bias CORRELATIONAL STUDY SELF-REPORT Attempt to find positive or negative Diary, visual reports, interview, questionnaire relationship between variables Participants are asked about some aspect of Enables prediction of one variable on basis their lives of another Questioning may be structured or flexible Can suggest hypotheses about causal May be verbal or visual relationships Provides firsthand information about the Cannot establish cause and effect participants’ lives, attitudes, and opinions EXPERIMENT NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION Controlled procedure in which an Participants are observed in their normal independent variable is manipulated to setting determine its effect on a dependent variable No attempt to manipulate behavior Establishes cause and effect relationships Provides good description of behavior Can be repeated by other researchers Subject to observer bias Findings inside the laboratory may not generalize to situations outside the laboratory PAGE 12 DEVP211 | 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY DEVP211 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM C3 OTHER TYPES OF STUDY BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS CROSS-SECTIONAL TOPIC OVERVIEW Data are collected on people of different A. FERTILIZATION ages at the same time a. Multiple Births Can show similarities and differences among age groups B. MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY Speedy and economical a. Meiosis No problem of attrition or repeated testing b. Mitosis Cannot establish age effects c. Mutations Masks individual differences d. Determination of Sex Can be confounded by cohort effects e. Epigenesis f. Patterns of Genetic Transmission LONGITUDINAL Data are collected on the same person(s) C. ABNORMALITIES over a long period of time a. Genetic Abnormalities Can show age-related change or continuity b. Chromosomal Abnormalities Avoids confounding age with cohort effects Time-consuming and expensive D. INFLUENCES OF Problems of attrition, bias in sample, and HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT effects of repeated testing a. Behavioral Genetics Results may be valid only for the particular b. Heritability cohort tested or sample studied c. Reaction Range d. Canalization SEQUENTIAL e. Genotype-Environment Data are collected on successive i. Interaction cross-sectional or longitudinal samples ii. Correlation Avoid drawbacks of both cross-sectional and 1. Passive longitudinal designs 2. Reactive/Evocative Requires large amount of time and effort 3. Active Requires analysis of very complex data E. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT a. Stages of Prenatal Development i. Germinal stage ii. Embryonic stage iii. Fetal stage F. BIRTH a. Stages of Giving Birth b. Childbirth Complications c. Medical and Behavioral Assessments i. APGAR Scale ii. Brazelton NBAS iii. Neonatal Screening for Medical Conditions PAGE 13 DEVP211 | 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY DEVP211 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM A FERTILIZATION B MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY Also called conception Chromosomes are found inside the cell’s Process by which sperm and ovum combine to nucleus. create a single cell called zygote, which then duplicates itself again and again by cell DNA → Genes → Chromosomes → Nucleus → Cell division to produce all the cells that make up a baby Normally occurs while the ovum is passing DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) through the fallopian tube or oviduct Chemical “stuff” of heredity Double-helix structure resembles a long, spiraling ladder whose steps are made of pairs If fertilization does not occur, the ovum and of chemical units called bases sperm cells in the woman’s body die. Bases are the “letters” of the genetic code Sperm is absorbed by the woman’s which the cellular machinery “reads” leukocytes (phagocytes) Ovum passes through the uterus and exits 4 BASES OF DNA through the vagina ○ Adenine ○ Thymine ○ Cytosine A1 MULTIPLE BIRTHS ○ Guanine DIZYGOTIC TWINS CHROMOSOMES Also called fraternal twins Coils of DNA consisting of smaller segments Result of two separate eggs being fertilized by called genes two different sperms to form two unique Sequence of bases in a gene tells the cell how individuals to make the proteins that enable it to carry out Can be the same or different sex specific functions Tends to run in families GENES Results of multiple eggs being released at one ○ Functional units of heredity time HUMAN GENOME MONOZYGOTIC TWINS ○ Complete sequence of genes in the Also called identical twins human body Result of the cleaving of one fertilized egg Generally genetically identical but can still differ outwardly as a result of the interaction B1 MEIOSIS between genes and environment Have a high mortality rate Process by which sex cells undergo when they are developing Every cell in the normal human body except sex cells (sperm and ova) has 23 pairs of chromosomes. Father (23) + Mother (23) = Baby (46) PAGE 14 DEVP211 | 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY DEVP211 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM AUTOSOMES & SEX CHROMOSOMES B4 DETERMINATION OF BIOLOGICAL SEX Autosomes First 22 pairs of chromosomes that are not related to sexual Sex chromosomes are either X or Y expression chromosomes Ovum only contains X chromosome Sex 23 pair of chromosomes (1 from Sperm contains either X or Y chromosome Chromosomes mother and 1 from father) that govern the baby’s sex SRY GENE Gene for maleness contained in the Y chromosome B2 MITOSIS B5 PATTERNS OF GENETIC TRANSMISSION Process by which non-sex cells divide in half over and over again ALLELES DNA replicates itself so that each newly Genes that can produce alternative expressions formed cell has the same DNA structure as all of a characteristic other cells Alternate versions of the same gene Each cell division creates a genetic duplicate of Example: black or brown eye color the original cell with the same hereditary information Every person receives 1 maternal and 1 paternal allele for any given trait. MITOSIS vs MEIOSIS Mitosis Single cell divides into two HOMOZYGOUS vs HETEROZYGOUS identical daughter cells Essential for growth and repair in Homozygous Both alleles are the same multicellular organisms Essential for asexual reproduction Heterozygous Alleles received from parents in single-celled organisms are different Meiosis Single cells divides into four daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell Critical for sexual reproduction Allows the production of gametes B3 MUTATIONS DOMINANT vs RECESSIVE Result when a mistake in copying is made Dominant Always expressed Irreversible, permanent alterations in genetic Allele Always shows up as a trait in a material person Lead to chromosomal defects Can cause cancer Recessive Only expressed when a person Allele does not have a dominant allele Only shows up as a trait when a person has two recessive alleles (one from each parent) PAGE 15 DEVP211 | 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY DEVP211 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM POLYGENIC INHERITANCE CARRIERS Interaction of several genes ○ Heterozygous females who carry one Where most traits result from “bad” and one “good” copy of a recessive gene PHENOTYPE and GENOTYPE GENETIC ABNORMALITIES Phenotype Observable characteristic through which underlying Alpha Severe anemia genetic makeup is expressed thalassemia Reduced ability of blood to Product of genotype and carry oxygen environmental influences Nearly all affected infants are stillborn and die soon after Genotype Underlying genetic makeup that birth contributes to the phenotype Not observable Beta Severe anemia thalassemia Weakness, fatigue, frequent (Cooley’s illness MULTIFACTORIAL TRANSMISSION anemia) Usually fatal in adolescence Environmental experience modifies the or young adulthood expression of the genotype for most traits B6 EPIGENESIS Cystic Overproduction of mucus fibrosis which collects in the lungs and digestive tract Most common inherited Why are identical twins not really ‘identical’? lethal defect among Whites Differences arise as certain genes are turned Duchene Fatal disease on or off as they are needed by the developing muscular Common among males body or when triggered by the environment dystrophy Muscle weakness Environmental factors also play a role in the Minor intellectual disability development of an individual Respiratory failure and death usually occur in young adulthood C ABNORMALITIES Hemophilia Excessive bleeding Common among males C1 GENETIC ABNORMALITIES Can lead to crippling arthritis in adulthood DOMINANT & RECESSIVE INHERITANCE Anencephaly Absence of brain tissues OF DEFECTS Infants are stillborn or die Recessive defects are expressed only if the soon after child is homozygous for that gene Incomplete dominance is a pattern of Spina bifida Incompletely closed spinal inheritance in which a child receives two canal different alleles, resulting in partial expression Often accompanied by of a trait hydrocephalus (accumulation of spinal fluid SEX-LINKED INHERITANCE OF DEFECTS in the brain) Certain recessive disorders affect male and female children differently More common among men PAGE 16 DEVP211 | 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY DEVP211 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM GENETIC ABNORMALITIES CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES Phenyl- Metabolic disorder resulting Fragile X More severe in males ketonuria in intellectual disability Minor to severe intellectual (PKU) disability, delayed speech and motor development, Polycystic Enlarged kidneys leading to hyperactivity kidney respiratory problems and Most common inherited form disease congestive heart failure of intellectual disability among infants Kidney pain, kidney stones, Intersex Have chromosomes or and hypertension leading to (Herma- reproductive organs that do chronic kidney failure among phrodite) not fit into a sex binary adults Down Moderate to severe Sickle-cell Deformed red blood cells that syndrome intellectual disability anemia clog blood vessels (Trisomy-21) Downward-sloping skin fold at the inner corners of the Tay-Sachs Degenerative disease of the eyes disease brain and nerve cells Death before age 5 D INFLUENCES OF C2 CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES HEREDITY & ENVIRONMENT Typically occur due to errors in cell division D1 BEHAVIORAL GENETICS Result of an extra or missing chromosome CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES Seeks to measure how much heredity and environment influence particular traits XYY Male Tall stature D2 HERITABILITY Low verbal IQ XXX Female Estimating how much of a trait is due to (Triple X) Normal appearance genetics and how much is the result of Irregular menstruation environmental influences Learning disorders, Scale of 0 (not inherited) to 1 (100% inherited) intellectual disability D3 REACTION RANGE XXY Male (Klinefelter) Sterility, underdeveloped secondary sex characteristics Range of potential variability or difference in (ex., small testes) the expression of a hereditary trait depending Learning disorders on environmental conditions XO Female CONCORDANCE (Turner) Short stature, webbed neck Being the same on a given trait Impaired spatial abilities, no Used to estimate the relative influence of genes menstruation, infertility, and environment underdeveloped sex organs PAGE 17 DEVP211 | 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY DEVP211 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM D4 CANALIZATION E PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT Limitation on variance of expression of certain Before birth or during pregnancy inherited characteristics How the same phenotypes are produced by a GESTATION genotype even through the environment may Period between conception and birth differ Unborn child undergoes dramatic processes of development Normal range is between 37 to 41 weeks D5 GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION & CORRELATION GESTATIONAL AGE ○ From first day of an expectant GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION mother’s last menstrual cycle Effects of similar environmental conditions on genetically different individuals E1 STAGES OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT Different ways nature and nurture interact Interlocking of environment of genes PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT Genetically similar children often develop differently depending on their home environment. Cephalocaudal Development proceeds from head to tail or top to bottom GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATION Environment often reflects or reinforces Proximodistal Development proceeds from genetic differences near to far or in to out Environment strengthens the phenotypic expression of a genotypic tendency STAGE 1: GERMINAL STAGE Fertilization – 2 weeks GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT Zygote divides, becomes more complex, and CORRELATION implants in the wall of the uterus Zygote enters a period of rapid cell division Passive Young child not only inherit and duplication (mitosis) within 36 hours after Correlation genes from biological parents fertilization but also their environments Fertilized ovum makes it way through the fallopian tube to the uterus for 3 or 4 days Reactive / Young children with differing Formation of blastocyst (proximodistal) Evocative genetic makeups evoke different reactions from BLASTOCYST others ○ Fluid-filled sphere that floats freely in Other people react to the the uterus until it begins to implant child’s genetic makeup itself in the uterine wall on the 6th day after fertilization Active Older children, adolescents, Correlation or adults actively select or What makes up a blastocyst? create experiences consistent with their genetic tendencies 1. Amniotic sac — fluid-filled membrane encasing the developing embryo Niche-picking — tendency to seek out environments that are 2. Placenta — allows oxygen, nourishment, compatible with one’s genotype and waste to pass between the mother and the embryo through the umbilical cord PAGE 18 DEVP211 | 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY DEVP211 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM EMBRYONIC DISK What is meconium aspiration syndrome? ○ Formed before implantation Occurs when meconium (first “poop” of ○ Thickened cell mass from which the the fetus inside the womb) is inhaled into embryo begins to develop the fetus’ lungs Causes changes in heart rate and respiratory Morula → Blastocyst → Embryonic disk → Gastrula problems like grunting, nasal flaring or blue skin color in the newborn baby THREE GERM LAYERS What are teratogens? Ectoderm Upper layer Substances that interfere with normal fetal Will become the outer layer of development and causes birth defects the skin; nails, teeth, sensory Drugs, alcohol, chemicals and other toxic organs; and nervous system substances Mesoderm Middle layer Will become the inner layer of F BIRTH the skin, muscles, skeleton, and excretory and circulatory systems Also called parturition Process of giving birth Endoderm Inner layer Typically begins about 2 weeks before delivery Will become the digestive PARTUNATE PERIOD system, liver, pancreas, and salivary glands Up to 30 minutes after birth NEONATE PERIOD STAGE 2: EMBRYONIC STAGE Post-cutting of the umbilical cord to 2 weeks 2 – 8 weeks Organogenesis occurs NEONATAL PERIOD Brain growth and development begin First 4 weeks of life Critical period when the embryo is most Time of transition from the uterus to an vulnerable to destructive influences independent existence ORGANOGENESIS F1 BRAXTON-HICKS CONTRACTIONS ○ Process by which organs and major body systems develop rapidly False contractions felt during the final months SPONTANEOUS ABORTION or second trimester of the pregnancy ○ Also called miscarriage Muscles of the uterus tighten for up to 2 ○ Expulsion from the uterus of an minutes embryo or fetus that is unable to survive outside the womb ○ More common in baby boys F2 STAGES OF GIVING BIRTH STAGE 3: FETAL STAGE 8 weeks – birth Divided into 3 stages Appearance of first bone cells Rapid growth and body systems become more STAGE 1: DILATION OF CERVIX complex 12 – 14 hours Finishing touches (ex., nails, eyelids) Longest stage Formation of taste buds and olfactory Regular and increasingly frequent uterine receptors contractions causing the cervix to shorten and widen until it is fully open (10 cm/4 in) PAGE 19 DEVP211 | 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY DEVP211 1ST SEMESTER A.Y. 2024-2025 | PRELIM TERM STAGE 2: EMERGENCE F4 MEDICAL & BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENTS 1 – 2 hours Begins when the baby’s head begins to move through the cervix into the vaginal canal (also APGAR SCALE called crowning) By Dr. Virginia Apgar (1953) Ends when the baby emerges completely from Conducted during partunate period (1 min the mother’s body post-delivery + 5 min after birth) Baby is born but still attached to the placenta Newborn is rated 0, 1, 0r 2 on each measure in the mother’s body by the umbilical cord for a maximum score of 10 What is a doula? 5 SUBTESTS A person providing guidance and support to 1. Appearance (color) a mother giving birth 2. Pulse (heart rate) 3. Grimace (reflex irritability) 4. Activity (muscle tone) 5. Respiration (breathing) APGAR SCALE SCORE 7 – 10 Baby is in good to excellent condition 5–7 Baby needs help to establish breathing What is the milky substance coating the