SLA Mid Term PDF

**What is second language acquisition**? **(1)** - Second language acquisition (SLA) refers to [the process] by which individuals learn a language other than their first language (L1). - The term also applies to the study of [how this learning occurs], both in individuals and group...

**What is second language acquisition**? **(1)** - Second language acquisition (SLA) refers to [the process] by which individuals learn a language other than their first language (L1). - The term also applies to the study of [how this learning occurs], both in individuals and groups, across various environments. - A second language (L2) might be the learner's third, fourth, or even tenth language, but it is still referred to as \"second\" in SLA terminology. - The scope of SLA includes [informal learning] in natural contexts, [structured classroom learning], and [situations combining both] formal and informal methods. - Understanding SLA requires exploring [what] language learners acquire, [how] they acquire it, and [why] some learners are more successful than others. - **Key terms:** **First Language (L1)** - The language acquired naturally from birth, typically before the age of three, which serves as the basis for understanding subsequent language acquisition. **Second Language (L2)** - An additional language learned after the first, often required for social, educational, or professional purposes. **Foreign Language**: - A language not commonly used in the learner's social context, studied primarily for travel, academic, or professional reasons. **Target Language (TL)** - The language that the learner aims to acquire. **Linguistic Competence:** Underlying knowledge of a language. **Linguistic Performance:** Actual use of language in speaking or writing. **Multilingualism:** - **Simultaneous Multilingualism**: Learning multiple languages from birth. - **Sequential Multilingualism**: Learning additional languages after the L1. - **The Multidisciplinary Nature of SLA**: **Linguistic Perspective** - Focuses on language structure, including syntax, phonology, and morphology. - Investigates the differences and similarities between L1 and L2. - Example: Analyzing how English speakers learn the gendered noun system in Spanish (or Arabic), which is absent in English. **Psychological Perspective** - Emphasizes cognitive processes, mental strategies, and how language is represented in the brain. - Explores stages of learning, memory retention, and the role of aptitude. - Example: Studying why younger learners often achieve higher levels of native-like proficiency compared to older learners. **Social Perspective** - Considers the impact of social interactions, cultural contexts, and societal factors on language learning. - Explores how learner identity, motivation, and attitudes toward the target language community influence acquisition. - Example: Examining how immigrants adapt to a new language for integration into the host country's society. - **Approaches in SLA Research**: **Different academic disciplines offer unique insights:** - **Linguists**: Study differences and similarities between L1 and L2. - **Psychologists**: Explore cognitive processes and brain activity. - **Sociolinguists**: Examine performance and communicative competence. - **Applied Linguists**: Consider implications for teaching. - **Challenges and Complexities in SLA (factors affecting its success)**: - **What is bilingualism? (2)** - **Bilinguals:** are individuals who regularly use two or more languages or dialects. - **Examples of bilingual contexts:** - Switzerland has four national languages with well-defined linguistic regions leading to bilingualism along language borders. - Immigrant populations often lead to bilingualism as they learn the language of the host country while maintaining their native language. - **Key terms:** - **Bilingualism:** The use of two or more languages by an individual in everyday life. - **Code-switching:** The alternate use of two languages. - **Biculturalism:** Taking part, to varying degrees, in the life of two or more cultures. - **Interference:** Deviation from the language being spoken (or written) stemming from the influence of the deactivated languages. - **Reasons for Bilingualism:** - **Linguistic Diversity:** Many countries have a high number of native languages. For example, Nigeria has 516 languages, while India has 427, leading to bilingualism when different language groups interact. - **Migration and Travel:** Trade, migration, colonization, and economic reasons often lead to the need for bilingualism. A notable example includes Russians learning Greek during the Byzantine era. - **Education:** In many countries, education is a significant driver of bilingualism. Children learn multiple languages in school, and international students become bilingual by studying abroad. - **Types and Levels of Bilingualism**: - **Fluency vs. Use:** Bilingualism does not require equal fluency in both languages. It is more about regular use. One language may be dominant depending on context or use. - **Different Purposes:** Bilinguals often use each language for distinct functions, such as family communication versus work. - **Language Proficiency**: The grid model on P. 23 illustrates how bilinguals may have varying degrees of fluency and use in different languages. A person might be fluent in two languages for daily tasks but use another language only occasionally. - **Common Misconceptions About Bilingualism**: - **Myth of Perfect Bilingualism**: The expectation that bilinguals must have perfect and equal command of both languages is incorrect. Most bilinguals are not "perfect" speakers of all their languages. - **Bilingualism and Childhood**: It is often assumed that true bilingualism requires early childhood acquisition. However, many adults become proficient bilinguals through education or necessity. - **Psychological and Social Aspects of Bilingualism**: - **Code-Switching**: Bilinguals often switch languages depending on context, audience, or emotional needs. This flexibility is a normal part of bilingual communication. - **Biculturalism**: Many, but not all, bilinguals are also bicultural, navigating between cultural contexts in addition to languages. This can lead to unique perspectives and challenges. - **Bilingualism Across Lifespan:** - Bilingualism is dynamic and can change with life stages. Language dominance and use may shift depending on life circumstances, such as migration, marriage, or employment. - Aging bilinguals may show changes in language proficiency, reflecting their varied use of each language over time. - **Benefits and Challenges of Bilingualism**: - **Cognitive Advantages**: Research suggests that bilingualism enhances cognitive flexibility and multitasking skills. Researchers found that bilingualism was a real asset for the bilingual child. Two researchers, Peal and Lambert, selected a group of ten-year-old children from six French Canadian schools in Montreal and compared the French-English bilinguals with the French monolinguals in a number of tests. The bilinguals got higher scores on both verbal and nonverbal IQ tests. Bilinguals had more diversified structures of intelligence and more flexibility in thought---that is, greater cognitive flexibility, greater creativity, and greater divergent thought. - **Language Interference**: A common challenge is the interference of one language with another, especially in stressful or emotional contexts. - **Cognitive development in** **learner language (3)** - **Key terms:** - **Cognitive development in SLA:** It refers to the mental processes involved in acquiring and using a second language (L2). - **Information Processing:** The brain's method of handling L2 input and converting it to output. - **Restructuring:** Sudden changes in linguistic performance due to new input that does not fit existing knowledge. - **Connectionism:** A cognitive framework viewing SLA as strengthening associations between stimuli (language input) and responses. - **Metalinguistic Skills:** The ability to think about and manipulate language structures consciously. - **Interference:** L1 cognitive patterns that can hinder L2 learning. - **Cognitive Processes:** SLA involves complex interactions between prior knowledge, cognitive styles, and linguistic input. - **Metacognitive Strategies:** Learners often develop strategies to regulate their learning, improving L2. - **Overview of Cognitive Development in SLA:** - Cognitive development in SLA is a dynamic process, influenced by factors like prior knowledge, language input, and individual cognitive abilities. Understanding the cognitive processes involved in language learning helps educators design effective teaching strategies and supports learners in overcoming challenges. - Cognitive development in second language acquisition (SLA) focuses on [how learners mentally process, store, and use a second language (L2).] This process involves the transfer of knowledge from the first language (L1), restructuring linguistic information, and developing strategies for effective language use. - [Understanding the cognitive mechanisms at play helps illuminate why learners progress differently and what factors influence their success.] - **Stages of Cognitive Development:** - **Initial State**: **It includes the cognitive resources available at the start of learning:** - **L1 Linguistic Knowledge**: Understanding of how language operates. - **World Knowledge**: Cognitive understanding of the world, which influences how learners interpret and express information in L2. This initial knowledge can be both an asset and a barrier, facilitating language acquisition in some cases and causing interference in others. **Differences from L1 Acquisition**: - Unlike children learning their L1, older L2 learners do not rely on innate cognitive mechanisms as much. Instead, they draw on their pre-existing cognitive maturity and L1 experience. - Cognitive maturity in L2 learners impacts the strategies they use for learning, often involving more analytical and deliberate approaches. - **Intermediate State**: It is characterized by ongoing cognitive changes and development. **Comparison to L1 acquisition:** - Systematic progression, with some similarity to L1 acquisition stages in children (the acquisition of negative forms). - Cognitive maturity does not directly influence SLA development, unlike the acquisition of L1 in children which is clearly affected by age. - **Cross-Linguistic Influence (Transfer)**: - **Positive Transfer**: When L1 rules or structures are applicable to L2, aiding the learning process. For instance, cognates (words with similar forms and meanings in both languages) can be easily transferred. - **Negative Transfer** **(interference)**: When L1 patterns interfere with L2 production, leading to errors. This is commonly observed in pronunciation, grammar, and syntax, resulting in a \"foreign accent\" or other language errors. - **Information Processing in SLA:** Learners move through phases of cognitive processing from **controlled to automatic processing**. - **Controlled Processing:** It requires conscious effort, typical in the early stages of learning. - **Automatic Processing**: With practice, language use becomes more automatic, requiring less conscious attention. - This shift involves **restructuring**, where learners adapt and reorganize their understanding of L2 as they encounter new linguistic information. - **Cognitive approaches to SLA:** - **Cognitive approaches to L2 acquisition minimally share these two assumptions:** **1.** The primary source for both first (L1) and second language (L2) learning is the learner's participative, contextualized experience of language. Language learning is largely usage-based. Humans use language in order to communicate and make meaning. **2.** The cognitive mechanisms that learners employ in language learning are not exclusive to language learning, but are general cognitive mechanisms [associated with learning of any kind.] - **Cognitive Theories and Models**: 1. **Multidimensional model (learning step-by-step):** - **This model includes the following claims:** Learners acquire certain grammatical structures in a developmental sequence. Developmental sequences reflect how learners overcome processing limitations. [Language instruction] which targets developmental features will be successful only if learners have already mastered the processing operations which are associated with the previous stage of acquisition (gradual instruction/ teaching). 2. **Competition Model:** - This is a functional approach which assumes that all linguistic performance involves "mapping" between external form and internal function. - The form of a lexical item is represented by its auditory properties, and its function by its semantic properties; the forms of strings of lexical items are word-order patterns and morphological inflections, and their functions are grammatical. - For example, for the word horse the form is represented by the sounds \[hors\]; the function is the meaning of a four-legged, hay-eating animal. 3. **Connectionism:** - A cognitive framework that views language learning as building associations between linguistic stimuli and responses. - Emphasizes the importance of **frequency** in input (drills). Repeated exposure to language patterns strengthens these connections, facilitating learning. - Different from rule-based (linguistic) approaches, connectionism suggests that learning happens through exposure and pattern recognition rather than explicit rule acquisition. - The best-known connectionist approach within SLA is Parallel Distributed Processing, or PDP. According to this model, processing takes place in a network of nodes (or "units") in the brain that are connected by pathways. As learners are exposed to repeated patterns of units in input, they extract regularities in the patterns. - **Cognitive Advantages of Bilingualism:** - Bilingual individuals often exhibit enhanced **creativity**, **problem-solving abilities**, and greater **metalinguistic awareness**. - **Metalinguistic Awareness** refers to the ability to reflect on and manipulate language structures consciously. It is often more developed in bilingual or multilingual individuals, who use cognitive resources to compare and contrast different languages. This awareness can lead to advantages in learning additional languages and improved performance in problem-solving and analytical tasks. - Studies indicate that bilingual children outperform monolinguals in both verbal and nonverbal tasks due to their exposure to multiple language systems. - These advantages are evident even in cases where proficiency is not balanced, showing the inherent cognitive benefits of bilingualism. - **Cognitive Challenges in SLA**: - **Interference**: L1 cognitive patterns can complicate L2 learning when they do not align, causing confusion and errors. - **Complex Concepts**: Older learners may have difficulty expressing advanced concepts with limited L2 proficiency, [although their world knowledge provides a cognitive advantage (advantage for adult bilinguals over young ones]). - Learners often need to re-encode familiar ideas using new linguistic structures, requiring cognitive flexibility. - **Effective cognitive development in SLA:** - To support cognitive development in SLA, learners often develop metacognitive strategies to optimize learning. - Metacognitive strategies involve planning, monitoring, and evaluating one\'s learning process. - Examples include setting language goals, self-correcting errors, and adjusting learning techniques based on progress. - These strategies help learners regulate their cognitive resources and improve language acquisition efficiency. - **Problem-Solving and Executive Functioning:** Research has demonstrated that bilingual individuals often excel in tasks that require problem-solving and executive control. - One notable study by Ellen Bialystok highlighted the bilingual advantage in tasks involving "selective attention" and "inhibitory control." In a classic experiment, bilingual and monolingual children aged four to five were presented with a sponge that looked like a rock. When asked what the object was, many correctly answered \"rock\" based on its appearance. However, when the hidden property (that it was a sponge) was revealed, bilingual children performed better on follow-up questions requiring inhibition of their initial assumption. - This suggested that bilingual children have enhanced abilities in controlling attention and managing conflicting information. **Cognitive Advantages of Bilingualism** - **Cognitive Flexibility and Divergent Thinking:** Another cognitive advantage often linked to bilingualism is increased cognitive flexibility, the ability to switch between different tasks or concepts. - Bilinguals have shown superior performance in divergent thinking tasks, which involve generating multiple solutions to a problem. - The researcher Anatoliy Kharkhurin asked bilinguals and monolinguals to undertake various tasks, such as imagining difficult situations and identifying the troubles they might encounter. It was found that bilinguals outperformed monolinguals in measures of fluency, elaboration, and flexibility, although both groups performed similarly in originality. - These results suggest that bilingualism fosters a unique kind of cognitive flexibility, enabling individuals to navigate between languages and contexts more efficiently. **Cognitive Advantages of Bilingualism** - **Metalinguistic Awareness:** Bilingual children often develop higher metalinguistic awareness, which is the ability to think about and manipulate language structures. - In studies focusing on metalinguistic tasks, bilingual children showed better performance in tasks requiring selective attention, such as identifying grammatical anomalies or replacing words in sentences. - These skills suggest that bilinguals develop a heightened sensitivity to language as an abstract system, which can positively impact reading and writing abilities. **Cognitive Advantages of Bilingualism** - **Bilingualism and Aging:** Bilingualism is not only beneficial in childhood but also extends its advantages across the lifespan. Studies have indicated that lifelong bilingualism may delay the onset of age-related cognitive decline. - For instance, elderly bilinguals have demonstrated superior performance in tasks requiring attentional control compared to monolingual counterparts. This cognitive reserve appears to help bilingual individuals cope better with symptoms of dementia, delaying its onset by several years. - Although the reasons are not entirely clear, it is hypothesized that the mental effort required to manage two languages strengthens the brain\'s executive control systems, providing protection against cognitive decline. - **The Debate on Bilingual Cognitive Benefits**: **1- Methodological Considerations:** The cognitive effects of bilingualism have been a subject of debate, partly due to methodological issues in past research. Earlier studies often did not control for socioeconomic status, education, or language proficiency, leading to mixed results. Some early 20th-century studies, for example, suggested that bilingualism negatively impacted intelligence. However, more recent research with improved methodologies has reversed these findings, highlighting specific cognitive advantages among bilinguals. Ellen Bialystok\'s studies are central in this debate, as they underscore that differences between monolinguals and bilinguals are often subtle and task-specific. **2- Context-Dependent Findings:** Not all studies agree on the benefits of bilingualism, emphasizing that outcomes can vary based on context. Bilingualism's cognitive effects can differ depending on factors like language proficiency, age of acquisition, and the degree of language balance. Some studies show no significant difference in certain cognitive tasks between bilinguals and monolinguals, suggesting that bilingualism\'s impact is not universal but rather context-dependent. - **Cognitive Challenges in Bilingualism**: - **Vocabulary Acquisition and Language Proficiency:** - While bilingualism provides numerous cognitive benefits, it can also pose challenges. Bilingual children often display a smaller vocabulary in each individual language compared to monolingual peers. - Studies using receptive vocabulary tests have shown that bilingual children may underperform relative to monolinguals when tested in only one language. This is linked to the complementarity principle, which states that bilinguals typically acquire and use different languages for specific purposes and contexts. - Consequently, standard vocabulary tests may not capture the full extent of a bilingual child's lexical knowledge. - **Language Interference and Cognitive Load:** - A common cognitive challenge for bilinguals is language interference, where one language may influence the processing of another. This can manifest as occasional slips or slower retrieval of words, particularly under stressful or emotionally charged situations. - Language switching, a frequent phenomenon among bilinguals, requires cognitive effort, leading to what is termed \"cognitive load.\" Despite this, many researchers argue that this switching trains the brain's executive control functions, which could explain some of the cognitive benefits observed in bilinguals. - **Social dimensions of additional language learning (5)** - Second Language Acquisition (SLA) involves not only linguistic mastery but also an understanding of the social and cultural dimensions integral to effective communication. - An important part of SLA involves learners' understanding their own and others' roles as members of groups or communities with sociocultural as well as linguistic bounds. - In this session, we focus on two levels of context that affect language learning: the microsocial and the macrosocial: The microsocial focus deals with the potential effects of different immediately surrounding circumstances, while the macrosocial focus relates SLA to broader cultural, political, and educational environments. - Although it is not within our focus here, you should always keep in mind that different psychological and biological (i.e. personal) factors like age, gender, education, ethnicity, etc. affect the success level of L2 acquisition within similar social circumstances. - **Communicative Competence in SLA:** - **Communicative competence refers to** what a speaker needs to know to communicate **appropriately** within a particular language community. It encompasses the ability to use language appropriately in social contexts, extending beyond grammatical rules and vocabulary knowledge (linguistic competence) to include sociolinguistic and cultural norms. It involves knowing when to speak (or not), what to say to whom, and how to say it appropriately in any given situation. Further, it involves the social and cultural knowledge speakers are presumed to have which enables them to use and interpret linguistic forms (e.g., the expression "rain check"). Another example is the differences in turn-taking conventions between cultures which may result in misunderstandings if not mastered. Effective communication also depends on **contextualization cues** such as tone, gesture, and situational appropriateness, critical for pragmatics. - Differences between monolingual and multilingual communicative competence are due in part to the different social functions of first and second language learning, and to the differences between learning language and learning culture. A child's native language is normally part of his or her native culture, and thus part of the body of knowledge, attitudes, and skills which are transmitted (thus acquired) from one generation to the next as well as a primary medium through which other aspects of culture are transmitted and through which social relations are maintained. - L2 learning may be part of second culture learning and adaptation, but the relationship of SLA to social and cultural learning differs greatly with circumstances and learning purposes. SL is generally learned and used within the context of a language community which dominantly includes members who speak it natively; it is needed to participate in that community socially, academically, politically, and economically. - **Input and social interaction in L1 and L2:** Along with input, which is very important for both L1 and L2 acquisition, social interaction is also essential particularly for L1 acquisition. No children can learn their initial language by merely listening to tape recordings, radio broadcasts, or television programs. In contrast, many L2 learners do acquire at least some level of competence without interacting with speakers of the target language, and for at least some highly motivated and/or talented learners, that level may be very high. However, the interactional modifications, like repetitions, paraphrasing, feedback, and comprehension checks, provided by NS to NNs enhance NNS communicative competence. - **Sociocultural (S-C) Theory (Vygotsky 1962, 1978):** - A key concept in this approach is that interaction not only facilitates language learning but is a causative force in acquisition; further, all of learning is seen as essentially a social process which is grounded in sociocultural settings. - S-C Theory differs from most linguistic approaches in giving relatively limited attention to the structural patterns of L2 which are learned, as well as in emphasizing learner activity and involvement over innate and universal mechanisms. - It also differs from most psychological approaches in its degree of focus on factors outside the learner, rather than on factors which are completely in the learner's head, and in its denial that the learner is a largely autonomous processor. - It also differs from most other social approaches in considering interaction as an essential force rather than as merely a helpful condition for learning. - **Microsocial Dimensions**: - Microsocial factors pertain to the **immediate** social settings where SLA occurs. - **Linguistic Variation**: One defining characteristic of L2 learner language is that it is highly variable. Some of the variability is due to changes that occur in what learners know and can produce as they progressively achieve higher levels of L2 proficiency (linguistic aspect). However, there is also considerable variation in learners' L2 production at every stage that is attributed to their social context.\ Much of what earlier linguists had considered unsystematic irregularity in language production can be seen to follow regular and predictable patterns, when treated as **[variable features]**, which are multiple linguistic forms that are systematically or predictably used by different speakers of a language with the same meaning or function. They occur at every linguistic level: vocabulary, phonology, morphology, syntax, discourse; they include both standard ("correct") and nonstandard options; and they are characteristic of natural language production, whether L1 or L2 (e.g., dinner vs. supper or learned vs. learnt). - Which variable feature occurs in the production of any one speaker (native or language learner) depends largely on the communicative contexts in which it has been learned and is used. - **Contextual Factors affecting the acquisition of variable features:** - **Linguistic contexts:** The part of speech, or the surrounding sounds, can be a relevant linguistic context, with production of \[ŋ\] most frequent in one-syllable nouns such as ring or song, and \[n\] in the progressive form of verbs, as in I'm workin'. - **Psychological contexts:** This includes factors associated with the amount of attention, which is being given to language form during production, the variable \[ŋ\], for instance, is more likely to be used by L1 or L2 speakers when they are focusing on their pronunciation in a formal setting than in casual conversation. - **Microsocial contexts:** This includes features of setting/situation and interaction which relate to communicative events within which language is being produced, interpreted, and negotiated. These include level of formality and participants' relationship to one another, and whether the interaction is public or intimate (Politeness theory and Speech acts). - **Accommodation Theory:** **Howard Giles (1970s)** A substantial amount of research on the effect of microsocial contexts has been based on the framework of accommodation theory. Speakers (usually unconsciously) change their pronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to.\ This accounts in part for why native speakers tend to simplify their language when they are talking to an L2 learner who is not fluent (foreigner talk, see p. 106 for a list of its characteristics), and why L2 learners may acquire somewhat different varieties of the target language when they have different friends. - **Macrosocial Dimensions:** Macrosocial influences frame SLA within broader societal, cultural, and institutional contexts. It accounts for cases when learners acquire different varieties of the "same" target language. Given similar linguistic, psychological, and microsocial contexts, for instance, female immigrants in the US may hear and use more standard variants than male immigrants from the same language and cultural background -- in part because females are more likely to find employment in middle- or upper-class households or in service positions, while males are more likely to find employment in blue-collar occupations. Workplace stratification affects both the nature of language input and group identity. - **Macrosocial dimensions:** - **Language Power and Prestige**: - Dominant languages like English often serve as gateways to education and employment, influencing learners' motivation, access, and even L2 linguistic variety. In contrast, minority languages may lack resources or societal support. Speakers of a prestigious L1 may carry more features of L1 pronunciation and lexical borrowings into a less prestigious L2 than they do when their L1 is less prestigious. - **Boundaries and Identities:** - Language learning is intertwined with social identity. Immigrants, for instance, may adopt the dominant language for integration while struggling to maintain their heritage language. Example: A second-generation Korean-American might speak Korean at home but English in school, leading to bilingualism with different levels of proficiency in each language. - Crossing a linguistic boundary to participate in another language community, and to identify or be identified with it, requires learning that language. It is both a necessary tool for participation and a badge which allows passage. Full participation also commonly requires learning the culture of that community and adapting to those values and behavioural patterns: i.e**[. acculturation]**. Whether or not this occurs depends largely on group motivation. - Part of the identity function of language is to unify speakers as members of one language community, and to exclude outsiders from insider communication. This function is illustrated by the official use of Hebrew in Israel. - **Macrosocial dimensions:** - **Circumstances of learning:** - Circumstances of learning are related to the nation that the learner lives in and its history, culture, and geopolitical position, and to social and economic categorizations within the society, which in turn are related to historical, institutional, and political forces and constraints, all of which are related to and reflect or determine the status of the languages involved. - **[Educational systems:]** learners' prior educational experiences are part of the larger social context within which SLA takes place because learning begins with children's first experiences with the families into which they are born, the communities to which they belong, and the cultural environment within which they live. - A clear example of culture-based learning strategies is seen in the superior capacity for learning among Asian students who have had more experience with teaching methods that involve memorization. - Another fundamental difference in situational circumstances is whether L2 learning is informal versus formal, or naturalistic versus instructed. Informal/naturalistic learning generally takes place in settings where people contact -- and need to interact with -- speakers of another language. Formal/instructed learning generally takes place in schools, which are social institutions that are established in accord with the needs, beliefs, values, and customs of their cultural settings. - **Social challenges in SLA:** - **Additive vs. Subtractive Bilingualism:** - Additive bilingualism occurs when learners maintain their native language while acquiring an L2. Conversely, subtractive bilingualism often results in the erosion of the L1 due to socio-political pressures. - Although the acquisition of an L2 has been treated neutrally or positively as an additive gain from linguistic and psychological perspectives, from a social perspective it may be problematic for several reasons. Acquisition of a dominant L2 may lead to actual loss or attrition of a minority L1, potentially creating alienation from the L1 group for the individual, and the ultimate disappearance of the minority language itself. Also, acquisition of technical knowledge through the medium of an L2 may render the learner unable to express that knowledge in his or her L1 (Arabic learners of linguistics in English). - **Social barriers**: - Social barriers, including unequal access to language instruction and societal biases, often hinder SLA. - Policies favouring dominant languages can marginalize minority groups, leading to linguistic attrition. Additionally, learners\' proficiency may stagnate if societal factors do not support continued use of the L2. - **Conclusion**: The interplay of microsocial and macrosocial factors in SLA underscores the importance of addressing social dimensions alongside linguistic ones. Educators and policymakers must adopt inclusive approaches, supporting diverse linguistic identities and equitable learning opportunities. - **Social, Educational, and Ideological Forces** **That Promote or Hinder Bilingualism (6)** **Introduction** Bilingualism is a global phenomenon that varies greatly depending on cultural, educational, and political contexts. It can be promoted or hindered by a range of social, educational, and ideological factors. These forces influence whether bilingualism thrives or diminishes in a particular region, affecting language policies, teaching methods, community attitudes, and individual language choices. - **1- Social forces:** A. **Social attitude:** The societal attitude towards bilingualism can significantly influence the spread or decline of multilingual practices. If bilingualism is perceived negatively, it can lead to policies that discourage the use of different languages in public spaces. (E.g. the cases of Switzerland and USA) B. **Migration:** Migration is a major driver of bilingualism as people bring their native languages into new environments. Cities like London, where over 300 languages are spoken, illustrate how migration fosters linguistic diversity. However, sustaining bilingualism in immigrant communities can be challenging without community and institutional support. In some cases, immigrant families face pressure to abandon their native languages to assimilate more effectively, which can hinder bilingualism [across generations]. C. **Community Support:** The role of community is crucial in maintaining minority languages. Programs that encourage the preservation of languages within immigrant groups can sustain bilingualism. For example, bilingual education initiatives among Navajo communities in the U.S. support cultural retention and the use of Navajo alongside English, showing the importance of localized efforts in language maintenance. When communities value bilingualism and provide resources, such as heritage language classes, they can promote linguistic diversity even in a dominant language environment. - **2- Educational Forces:** - **Types of Bilingual Education Programs:** - **A-Immersion Programs:** These are programs where learners are first taught in a second language and then, little by little, their first language is introduced as a second medium of instruction. (e.g. the experiment of the English-speaking children in Canada) - **B-Transitional Programs:** transitional programs use a child\'s native language temporarily as a bridge to the dominant language. These programs aim to maintain academic success while acquiring proficiency in the majority language, though they may not always support long-term bilingualism. (e.g. Sweden) - **C-Dual-Language Programs:** In such programs, half of the courses are taught in the native language and the other half in the SL, so that students are using their first language half the time and their second language the other half. (e.g. in Switzerland, in the bilingual town of Bienne, the high school there offers a three-year dual-language program leading to the high school degree. The program contains both French-speaking and Swiss German--speaking students. - **Challenges in Implementing Bilingual Education:** 1. **Adequate resources:** funding, culturally- relevant material, teachers' training. 2. **Institutional support:** The UNESCO 2002 Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity advocates for the respect of mother tongues in education, suggesting that early education should include native languages to promote linguistic diversity. 3. **Societal attitudes:** Societal attitudes towards bilingualism influence how educational policies are enacted, often limiting the extent to which schools can support bilingual goals. 4. **Consistency:** The failure to maintain mother tongue instruction in later educational stages can lead to language loss among minority children. - **Ideological Forces:** 1. **Political Ideology**: Ideological beliefs about national identity and cohesion often influence language policies. In the U.S., the preference for English-only policies in public education reflects a historical discomfort with multilingualism associated with immigrant populations, despite the cognitive and social benefits of bilingualism. 2. **Misconceptions about bilingualism:** Misconceptions about bilingualism can hinder its development. A persistent myth is that bilingualism may cause cognitive confusion or identity issues. In fact, studies have shown that bilingualism can enhance cognitive flexibility and contribute to greater cultural empathy. This ideological bias, however, can still influence educational practices, leading to policies that discourage bilingual education. 3. **Biculturalism and Identity:** Bilingualism is often intertwined with biculturalism, especially in immigrant communities. Navigating multiple cultural identities can enrich a bilingual individual's worldview, [but it can also lead to tensions when dominant cultural groups view such hybridity with suspicion]. In Belgium, for example, French-speaking communities exhibit reluctance to learn Flemish, reflecting deeper cultural and political divides. - **Case studies:** - **Bilingual Education in Quebec:** The St. Lambert experiment in Quebec is a landmark case of successful bilingual education. English-speaking children received education exclusively in French, achieving high levels of bilingual proficiency. This model demonstrated that immersive bilingual education can lead to balanced bilingualism, challenging the assumption that early language dominance leads to cognitive disadvantages. (p. 236-237) - **Immigrant Family in the U.S.:** In the United States, immigrant families often face pressure to abandon their native languages in favor of English. For example, a French-speaking family that moved to the U.S. reported their child's gradual shift from French to English despite efforts to maintain French at home. This highlights the difficulty of sustaining bilingualism without robust community and institutional support. (p. 174- 175) - **Supportive Language Policies:** (p. 241) Countries like Switzerland have historically maintained supportive policies for multilingualism, with official recognition of multiple languages. This has fostered a culture where bilingualism and multilingualism are seen as assets rather than liabilities, allowing citizens to navigate between linguistic communities with ease. - **Conclusion:** The promotion or hindrance of bilingualism is complex and often influenced by intersecting social, educational, and ideological factors. Societies that value linguistic diversity are more likely to implement supportive educational policies and cultivate positive attitudes toward bilingualism. Conversely, in regions where monolingualism is idealized, bilingualism can struggle to gain acceptance. Addressing these challenges requires shifting attitudes, investing in bilingual education, and recognizing the social and cognitive benefits of maintaining linguistic diversity. Assess the situation in Saudi Arabia, bear in mind the three types of force. - **The role of individual differences in language acquisition and bilingualism** (7) Language acquisition, whether for a first language (L1) or a second language (L2), and bilingualism are influenced by a wide range of individual differences, including cognitive capacities, personality traits, age, and social environments. These factors determine not only how efficiently a person can learn a language but also how they maintain proficiency, especially in more than one language, over time. - **Cognitive Factors**: 1. **Abilities and Aptitude**: Language learners display varying levels of aptitude, i.e., an individual\'s natural ability to learn. Key components of language aptitude include phonetic coding ability, grammatical sensitivity, rote learning ability (memorization by repetition), and inductive language learning ability. Research has shown that learners with strong phonetic coding abilities tend to have an easier time acquiring the pronunciation and sound systems of a new language, while those with high grammatical sensitivity can more easily identify patterns in syntax. **Working Memory**: A person's working memory capacity allows them to hold and manipulate information temporarily. Learners with a larger working memory can better handle complex grammatical structures and keep track of discourse in conversation. Studies indicate that working memory directly correlates with proficiency levels, particularly in tasks involving language comprehension and production. 2. **Learning Strategies and cognitive styles:** Successful language learners often employ a variety of strategies, including metacognitive strategies (planning, monitoring, and evaluating their learning), cognitive strategies (memorizing and practicing language structures), and social strategies (seeking practice opportunities). These strategies are linked to cognitive styles; for instance, field-independent learners---those who can distinguish details from a surrounding context---often prefer rule-based learning and structured practice, whereas field-dependent learners benefit more from communicative and contextualized learning environments. 3. **Innate Ability:** Language learning begins with an innate capacity often linked to Universal Grammar (UG). This ability allows children to master L1 by age five or six, demonstrating an almost effortless grasp of complex language systems, regardless of the language spoken around them. For L2 learners, the extent to which this innate capacity persists varies. Some researchers argue that parts of this ability diminish with age (**Critical Period Hypothesis)**, contributing to differences in L2 learning outcomes. - **Age and Timing in Language Acquisition**: - **The Critical Period Hypothesis**: One of the most debated topics in second language acquisition is the Critical Period Hypothesis, which posits that there is an optimal window for acquiring a language with native-like proficiency. This period is generally considered to be early childhood, after which the ability to acquire phonology and grammar diminishes. The CPH suggests that language acquisition is most effective in early childhood. While younger learners excel in achieving native-like pronunciation in L2, older learners benefit from cognitive maturity, which enhances their ability to understand explicit grammatical rules and complex vocabulary. - **Age-Related Differences in Learning:** Younger learners are more likely to achieve native-like accent and pronunciation, while older learners often have advantages in vocabulary acquisition and understanding complex grammatical rules due to their advanced cognitive development. The different strengths of age groups suggest that the timing of language exposure can shape the type of proficiency attained. A study by Snow and Hoefnagel-Hohle demonstrated that while younger children are more successful at acquiring native-like pronunciation, older learners often outperform younger ones in the early stages of learning due to their superior cognitive skills and study strategies. - **Personality Traits:** - **Extroversion vs. Introversion**: Extroverted learners tend to thrive in environments where interaction and communication are key. Their willingness to take risks in speaking and their sociable nature often lead to greater practice and more opportunities to use the language, even if accuracy suffers initially. Introverted learners, on the other hand, may excel in reading and writing due to their reflective and detail-oriented nature. A study involving English learners in the United States found that introverted individuals often achieved higher proficiency in grammar and vocabulary tests, while extroverts excelled in speaking fluency. - **Anxiety and Confidence:** Language anxiety can significantly hinder acquisition, particularly in speaking and listening tasks. Learners who experience high levels of anxiety may avoid opportunities to practice, leading to slower progress. Conversely, self-confidence encourages learners to engage actively and take risks, which leads to greater progress. - **Risk-Taking Behavior:** Individuals who are willing to take linguistic risks tend to advance more quickly in acquiring spoken language. They engage in conversations despite not knowing every word, leading to more meaningful interactions and faster acquisition of colloquial and idiomatic expressions. This trait is closely tied to personality, with risk-takers often being more extroverted. - **Motivation**: motivation plays a pivotal role in language success. Integrative motivation, where the learner has a genuine interest in the culture and community of L2, has been linked to more sustained and deeper learning compared to instrumental motivation, which is driven by practical goals like employment or academic requirements. Highly motivated learners often achieve better results in both formal and informal learning contexts. - **Social and Environmental Influences**: - **Input and interaction:** Language input is essential for acquisition. For L1, however, children need something more, which is interaction with others, to learn effectively. For L2, reciprocal interaction is not always necessary; learners can achieve proficiency through non-reciprocal input, such as media or written texts. However, meaningful interaction significantly enhances L2 learning outcomes. - **Family Influence:** The role of family in maintaining a heritage language is crucial. When parents actively use the heritage language at home, children are more likely to retain it despite pressures to conform to the dominant language. A case study involving Spanish-speaking families in the United States revealed that children who were encouraged to speak Spanish at home and attended bilingual schools were more successful in becoming fully bilingual compared to those who shifted predominantly to English. - **Peer Interaction:** Peers also play a critical role, particularly during adolescence when social acceptance becomes a priority. Bilingual children who associate with peers who speak the target language are more likely to develop conversational fluency. The Acculturation Model suggests that learners who integrate socially with native speakers are more likely to succeed in acquiring the language due to increased input and opportunities for practice. - **Sociocultural Context**: The sociocultural environment plays a critical role in language acquisition. Multilingual individuals often acquire their languages naturally within multilingual communities, unless the societal attitude towards a particular language is negative and learners are discouraged from using it, affecting their motivation and proficiency. By contrast, monolingual settings often limit learners\' exposure to the target language, making formal instruction a primary mode of learning. - **L1 effects**: 1. **Positive Transfer**: When L1 and L2 share linguistic similarities, positive transfer occurs, facilitating language acquisition. For instance, cognates like *exterior* in Spanish and English simplify vocabulary learning by providing a shared form and meaning. 2. **Negative Transfer**: Negative transfer, or interference, arises when L1 rules are incorrectly applied to L2, leading to errors. (e.g. My phone died. She is wearing makeup). - **Ultimate Outcomes and Fossilization**: The ultimate proficiency achieved in L2 learning varies widely. Some learners reach near-native fluency, while others experience fossilization, where progress halts, and persistent errors remain despite continued exposure. Unlike L1 acquisition, which universally results in native competence, L2 acquisition outcomes depend on the combination of factors discussed previously, including individual differences, quality of input, and contextual factors. - **Conclusion:** Individual differences play a fundamental role in the outcomes of second language acquisition and bilingualism. Cognitive abilities, personality traits, social environments, and motivational factors create unique paths to language learning for each individual. Understanding these differences is essential for developing effective language teaching strategies and for fostering environments that support diverse learners. - **The role of input in lexical, grammatical, and literacy development of bilinguals (8)** - **Importance of Input for Bilingual Language Acquisition:** Language acquisition requires substantial exposure to linguistic input. Annick De Houwer, a specialist in childhood bilingualism, emphasizes that for children to \"pick up\" a language, they need input across diverse contexts and from significant individuals such as parents, caretakers, family members, and peers. This exposure should be varied and delivered in meaningful interactions. Additionally, the type of input---including occasions of monolingual exposure in bilingual environments, which proved effective when done naturally---plays a critical role. For example, reading to children is an excellent source of vocabulary and cultural knowledge, complementing oral input in their natural environment. The family environment is a crucial determinant of input quality and quantity. Parents and caregivers are encouraged to adopt strategies that sustain the home language, especially when it is a minority language, to counter the dominance of the societal language. Extended family members and friends can also contribute to input by reinforcing the language's natural use. - **Lexical Development in Bilinguals:** Lexical growth in bilinguals is influenced by the exposure to and balance of input across their languages. Research by Barbara Zurer Pearson shows that bilingual children achieve milestones such as the \"lexical spurt\" in vocabulary acquisition either alternately or simultaneously, depending on their relative exposure to each language. For example, a balanced exposure of approximately 60--65% in one language and 35--40% in the other supports robust lexical development. However, disparities in exposure can result in differences in vocabulary size between the two languages. Bilingual children's vocabularies often reflect a complementary distribution rather than direct equivalence across languages. For instance, concepts may be represented by a word in one language but not in the other, illustrating how input shapes language-specific lexical access. - **Grammatical Development in Bilinguals:** Bilingual children's ability to differentiate grammatical systems from an early age is remarkable. Proponents of the dual language system hypothesis, such as Jürgen Meisel, argue that children acquiring two languages simultaneously develop distinct grammatical frameworks without confusion. For instance, young French-German bilinguals adhere to the syntactic rules of each language without mixing word-order patterns. Cross-linguistic influences, such as interference and acceleration or delay in the acquisition of specific constructions, may arise from the dominant language's impact on the weaker one. Virginia Yip and Stephen Matthews observed that bilingual children exhibit unique linguistic profiles rather than merely replicating monolingual development in two languages. These profiles include structures that develop more quickly in one language due to simplicity or transparency. - **Literacy Development in Bilinguals**: Literacy input significantly enhances bilingual development, fostering cross-linguistic transfer of skills. The National Literacy Panel for Language Minority Children and Youth (commissioned by the U.S. Department of Education) found that word-reading skills and reading comprehension abilities transfer between languages, provided the writing systems are similar. For instance, Spanish-English bilinguals benefit more from such transfer than Chinese-English bilinguals. Reading to children in their home language supports both literacy and cultural identity. Additionally, there is a real cross-linguistic influence of literacy knowledge, processes, and strategies from one language (predominantly the stronger one) to the other. For example, word-reading skills acquired in one language transfer to the other. In early stages of L2 spelling development, L1 phonology and graphophonic rules affect the spelling of L2; that is when the languages have similar writing systems. - **Factors Influencing Bilingual Input**: 1. **Family Strategies:** Parents' conscious efforts to maintain the home language, particularly when it is a minority language, are pivotal. The quantity and quality of their input, in addition to their attitude towards their L1, enhances the maintenance of the status of bilingualism. 2. **Educational Environment:** Schools play a vital role in reinforcing both languages (1 and 2). For example, transitional bilingual education programs utilize the first language as a bridge to second-language learning, enabling content mastery while preserving the home language. 3. **Community Support:** The broader societal attitudes toward bilingualism and the availability of community resources, such as bilingual daycare, minority communities, and cultural activities, significantly impact input quality and language maintenance. - **Case studies:** **Discuss the Hildegard's case:** Hildegard is an American little girl who acquired two languages simultaneously, since her father spoke German to her and her mother spoke English. Between the ages of two and five, English was the dominant language because the family lived in an English-speaking environment. She was quickly aware of the two languages, and she tried out various ways to get her father to also speak English, such as by asking him, "How does Mama say it?" Her German became less fluent as time went by, but it got a real boost when Hildegard spent a bit more than half a year in Germany during her fifth year. In fact, as is often the case, after only four weeks in a totally German environment, she was unable to produce more than a few very simple utterances in English. Of course, when she returned to the United States, she quickly recovered her English, and after four weeks it was her German that was starting to weaken. Then things settled down, and Hildegard continued her journey in bilingualism with no problems. - **The German-Italian bilinguals' case**: Research on German-Italian bilinguals Lisa and Giulia revealed that their vocabularies exhibited minimal overlap across languages during early stages, supporting the idea of distinct linguistic frameworks developing independently. For instance, out of an 87-word vocabulary, Lisa had only three corresponding words in both languages, and Giulia had six corresponding words out of an 83-word vocabulary. - **Conclusion**: The role of input in the lexical, grammatical, and literacy development of bilinguals cannot be overstated. Quality and quantity of input, combined with strategic support from family, educational institutions, and communities, shape bilingual competence. By providing rich, meaningful, and balanced input, bilingual individuals can thrive linguistically and culturally in their bilingual environments.