Shier_Holes_HumanA&P_16e_Chap007_PPT_JB_Accessible.pptx

Because learning changes everything. ® Chapter 07 Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hil...

Because learning changes everything. ® Chapter 07 Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 7.1 Overview of the Skeletal System The bones of the skeletal system: Organs of the skeletal system Composed of many tissues: bone tissue, cartilage, dense connective tissue, blood and nervous tissue Alive and multifunctional: Support and protect softer tissues Movement Blood cell formation Mineral storage Skeletal system has 2 divisions: Axial Appendicular Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 2 7.2 Bone Shape and Structure Bones of the skeletal system vary greatly in these ways: Size Shape Bones are similar in these features: Structure Development Function Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 3 Bone Shapes Bone Classification by Shape: Long Bones: Long and narrow Have expanded ends Short Bones: Cube-like, length = width Include sesamoid (round) bones, which are embedded in tendons Flat Bones: Plate-like, with broad surfaces Irregular Bones: Variety of shapes Most are connected to several other bones Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 4 Figure 7.1 Bone Shapes Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 5 Parts of a Long Bone Epiphysis: expanded end Diaphysis: bone shaft Metaphysis: between diaphysis and epiphysis, widening part Articular cartilage: covers epiphysis Periosteum: encloses bone; dense connective tissue Compact (cortical) bone: wall of diaphysis Spongy (cancellous) bone: makes up epiphyses Trabeculae: branching bony plates, make up spongy bone Medullary cavity: hollow chamber in diaphysis; contains marrow Endosteum: Lines spaces, cavity Bone marrow: Red or yellow marrow, lines medullary cavity, spongy bone spaces Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 6 Figure 7.2 Major Parts of a Long Bone Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 7 Microscopic Structure of Bone Osteocytes: Mature bone cells Lacunae: Chambers occupied by osteocytes Canaliculi: Tiny passageways through which the cell processes of osteocytes exchange nutrients and wastes The extracellular matrix of bone is largely collagen fibers and inorganic salts: Collagen gives bone resilience Inorganic salts make bone hard Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 8 Compact and Spongy Bone Compact Bone: Consists of cylindrical units called osteons Osteons and layers of matrix, lamellae, cluster around central canal in each osteon Strong and solid Weight-bearing Resists compression Spongy Bone: Consists of branching plates called trabeculae Somewhat flexible Has spaces between trabeculae that reduce the bone’s weight Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 9 Figure 7.3 Compact and Spongy Bone (a): Ed Reschke/Getty Images; (b, c): Courtesy of John W. Hole, Jr. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 10 Figure 7.4 Compact Bone Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 11 7.3 Bone Function Major functions of bones: Provide shape to body Support body structures Protect body structures Aid body movements Contain tissue that produces blood cells Store inorganic salts Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 12 Blood Cell Formation Hematopoiesis: Blood cell formation Blood cell production occurs in red bone marrow Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are produced in red bone marrow With age, some red bone marrow is replaced by yellow bone marrow, which stores fat, but does not produce blood cells Red marrow remains in adult in skull, ribs, sternum, clavicles, vertebrae, hip bones Bone marrow transplants are used to treat a variety of conditions Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 13 Inorganic Salt Storage About 70% of bone matrix consists of inorganic mineral salts Most abundant salt is crystals of hydroxyapatite (calcium phosphate) Other salts include: Magnesium ions Sodium ions Potassium ions Carbonate ions Osteoporosis: a condition that results from loss of bone mineralization Since calcium is vital in nerve impulse conduction and muscle contraction, blood calcium level is regulated by Parathyroid hormone and Calcitonin Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 14 7.4 Bone Development, Growth, and Repair Parts of the skeletal system begin to develop in first few weeks of prenatal development Bony structures continue to grow and develop into adulthood Bones form when bone tissue replaces existing connective tissue in one of two ways: Intramembranous bones Endochondral bones Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 15 Bone Growth, and Development Fetus at 14 weeks of development shows growth of both intramembranous and endochondral bones: Intramembranous Ossification: Flat skull bones, clavicles, sternum and some facial bones Bones form between sheets of primitive connective tissue Endochondral Ossification: Long bones and most of skeleton Bones form from hyaline cartilage models Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 16 Figure 7.7 Bone Development in Fetus (a): Biophoto Associates/Science Source; (b): Photo courtesy of T.D. Gelehrter and F.S. Collins Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 17 Figure 7.8 Osteocyte in a Lacuna CNRI/SPL/Science Source Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 18 Figure 7.10 Stages in Development of Endochondral Bones Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 19 Figure 7.11 Epiphyseal Plates in a Child’s Hand Ed Reschke/ Getty Images Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 20 Figure 7.12 Epiphyseal Plate (b): Al Telser/McGraw-Hill Education Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 21 Growth at the Epiphyseal Plate 2 Osteoclasts break down calcified matrix Osteoblasts then invade, replacing cartilage with bone tissue Bone can continue to grow in length, as long as cartilage cells of epiphyseal plate remain active When ossification centers meet, and epiphyseal plate ossifies, bone can no longer grow in length Bone can thicken by depositing compact bone on outside, under periosteum Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 22 Factors Affecting Bone Development, Growth, and Repair 1 Nutrition, sunlight exposure, hormone levels, and physical exercise all affect bone development, growth, and repair: Vitamin D: calcium absorption; deficiency causes rickets, osteomalacia Vitamin A: osteoblast and osteoclast activity; deficiency retards bone development Vitamin C: collagen synthesis; deficiency results in slender, fragile bones Growth Hormone: stimulates cartilage cell division Insufficiency in a child can result in pituitary dwarfism Excess causes gigantism in child, acromegaly in adult Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 23 7.5 Skeletal Organization Number of bones in the adult skeleton is about 206 Some people have extra bones, while others lack certain bones Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 24 Figure 7.15 Sutural (Wormian) Bones Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 25 Divisions of the Skeleton Axial Skeleton (80 bones): Skull: Cranium and facial bones Middle ear bones: Move sound to receptors in inner ear Hyoid bone: Supports tongue and is muscle attachment site Vertebral column: Forms central axis of skeleton Thoracic cage: Ribs and sternum; protects organs Appendicular Skeleton (126 bones): Pectoral girdle: Scapula and clavicle; upper limb movement Upper limbs: Humerus, radius, ulna, hand Pelvic girdle: Hip bones; lower limb movement; forms pelvis Lower limbs: Femur, tibia, fibula, patella, foot Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 26 Use the Visible Body Atlas Software as an additional resource for the remaining materials Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 27 Figure 7.16 Divisions of the Skeleton Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 28 Figure 7.17 The Hyoid Bone Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 29 Figure 7.18 Anterior View of the Skull (Use Visible Body Atlas Software) Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 30 Figure 7.19 Lateral View of the Skull (Use Visible Body Atlas Software) Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 31 Figures 7.20 and 7.21 Eye Orbit and Paranasal Sinuses (Use Visible Body Atlas Software) Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 32 Figure 7.22 Inferior View of the Skull (Use Visible Body Atlas Software) Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 33 Infantile Skull Characteristics of Infantile Skull: Incompletely developed at birth Small face, large orbits, prominent forehead Small nasal cavity and jaw Sinuses are not completely formed Bones are thin and flexible Fontanels (soft spots): Fibrous membranes that connect cranial bones, where intramembranous ossification is incomplete Allow skull to change shape slightly during birth Four major fontanels close between 2 months and 2 years of age Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 34 Figure 7.32 Infantile Skull with Fontanels Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 35 7.7 Vertebral Column Vertebral Column: Forms vertical axis of skeleton Consists of many vertebrae separated by cartilaginous intervertebral discs, and connected by ligaments Supports head and trunk, permits several types of movements Protects spinal cord in vertebral canal 33 separate bones in infant, 26 in adult Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 36 Vertebral Column Curvatures and Composition 4 Curvatures of Vertebral Column: Cervical curvature (secondary) Thoracic curvature (primary) Lumbar curvature (secondary) Sacral curvature (primary) Vertebral Column consists of: 7 cervical vertebrae 12 thoracic vertebrae 5 lumbar vertebrae 5 fused sacral vertebrae form sacrum 4 fused coccygeal vertebrae form coccyx Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 37 Figure 7.33 Vertebral Column (Use the Visible Body Software to visualize the 3D structure of the vertebrae) Image Credit: Anatomage Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 38 Figure 7.38 Sacrum and Coccyx Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 39 7.8 Thoracic Cage Anterior View Posterior View Thoracic cage: Includes ribs, thoracic vertebrae, sternum, and costal cartilages that attach the ribs to the sternum Supports pectoral girdle and upper limbs Protects thoracic and upper abdominal viscera Role in breathing Image Credit: Anatomage Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 40 Ribs and Their Structure Humans have 12 pairs of ribs: True ribs: Vertebrosternal, 7 pairs, connect directly to sternum False ribs (5 pairs): Vertebrochondral ribs: Upper 3 pairs, costal cartilages connect to Cartilage #7 Floating ribs: Vertebral, lower 2 pairs, no connection to sternum Structure of a rib: Shaft: main portion; long and slender Head: posterior end; articulates with vertebrae Tubercle: articulates with vertebra Costal cartilage: hyaline cartilage, connects rib to sternum Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 41 Figure 7.39 The Thoracic Cage (b): Thinkstock/Getty Images Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 42 Sternum Sternum (breastbone): Along midline of anterior thoracic cage 3 parts: Manubrium: Upper part Body: Middle and largest part Xiphoid process: Lower part Articulates with costal cartilages of ribs, and clavicles Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 43 7.9 Pectoral Girdle Pectoral (shoulder) girdle: Consists of 2 clavicles and 2 scapulae: Clavicles = collarbones; anterior portions Scapulae = shoulder blades; posterior portions Forms incomplete ring; open in back Supports upper limbs Attachment site for muscles that move upper limbs Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 44 Figure 7.41 Pectoral Girdle (b): Courtesy, Dale Butler Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 45 7.10 Upper Limb Upper Limb Bones: Form framework of upper arm, forearm, hand Provide muscle attachments, and work with muscles for limb movement Bones of the upper limb: Humerus Radius Ulna Carpals Metacarpals Phalanges Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 46 Figure 7.43 Upper Limb (d): Courtesy, Dale Butler Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 47 Hand Each hand consists of the wrist, palm, and fingers (digits): Carpal (wrist) bones (8 ): Scaphoid Lunate Triquetrum Pisiform Hamate Capitate Trapezoid Trapezium Metacarpal (hand) bones (5) Phalanges (finger bones, 14): Proximal phalanx Middle phalanx Distal phalanx Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 48 Figure 7.46 Hand (c): Courtesy, Dale Butler Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 49 7.11 Pelvic Girdle Pelvic Girdle consists of 2 hip (coxal, pelvic, or innominate) bones Pelvis = pelvic girdle + sacrum + coccyx Pelvic Girdle: Supports trunk of body Protects viscera, such as urinary bladder Transmits weight to lower limbs Provides attachment for lower limbs Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 50 Figure 7.48 Pelvic Girdle (c): Image Source/Getty Images Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 51 Hip Bones Each hip bone consists of 3 fused bones: Ilium (largest, most superior part): Iliac crest Iliac spines Greater sciatic notch Ischium (L-shaped, lowest part): Supports weight while sitting Ischial spines Ischial tuberosity Pubis (anterior portion): Pubic symphysis Pubic arch Acetabulum: Depression for head of femur Obturator foramen: Opening between pubis and ischium Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 52 Figure 7.49 Hip Bones Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 53 Differences Between a Male and Female Pelvis Female pelvis: Functions as birth canal Iliac bones more flared Broader hips than male Pelvic cavity wider than male Pubic arch angle greater More distance between ischial spines and ischial tuberosities Sacral curvature shorter and flatter Lighter in weight Male pelvis: Less flared Heavier in weight Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 54 Figure 7.50 Female Pelvis and Male Pelvis Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 55 7.12 Lower Limb Lower limb bones form framework of each thigh, leg, and foot Bones of the lower limb: Femur Patella Tibia Fibula Tarsals Metatarsals Phalanges Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 56 Figure 7.51 Lower Limb (d): Courtesy, Dale Butler Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 57 Patella Patella (Kneecap): Flat sesamoid bone located in the quadriceps tendon Anterior surface of knee joint Helps with lever actions with movement of lower limbs Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 58 Figure 7.53 Tibia and Fibula Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 59 Foot Tarsal (Ankle) Bones (7): Calcaneus: Heel bone Talus: Articulates with tibia Navicular Cuboid Lateral cuneiform Intermediate cuneiform Medial cuneiform Metatarsal (Foot) Bones (5) Phalanges (Toe Bones, 14 ): Proximal Middle Distal Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 60 Figure 7.54 Foot (a): Courtesy, Dale Butler Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 61 Figure 7.55 Foot (b): Courtesy, Dale Butler Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 62 7.13 Life-Span Changes Decrease in height begins at about age 30 Calcium levels fall Bones become brittle and more prone to fracture Osteoclasts outnumber osteoblasts Spongy bone weakens before compact bone Bone loss rapid in menopausal women Hip fractures common Vertebral compression fractures common Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 63