Tourism Notes PDF

MIKE-FRANK G. EPITROPOULOS NOTES (dr. E) CH 1: Tourism: A Sociological Approach á Modern Sociology -- mid- 19th century Auguste COMTE Coined the term, “Sociology” Adopted rigorous scientific approach to the study of society Selected Typology of Sociological Thought...

MIKE-FRANK G. EPITROPOULOS NOTES (dr. E) CH 1: Tourism: A Sociological Approach á Modern Sociology -- mid- 19th century Auguste COMTE Coined the term, “Sociology” Adopted rigorous scientific approach to the study of society Selected Typology of Sociological Thought Structuralism – any form of sociological analysis that is concerned with society as a whole and how it is structured. Consensus Theory – views human interaction and wider social forces developed via social consensus (agreement). Conflict Theory – concerned with material, societal conflicts of domination and subordination of Wealth & Power --- INEQUALITIES. Social Action Theory – from humanist perspective that focuses on how society is formed by individuals who comprise it and says that social reality results from actions between individuals. Symbolic Interactionism – focuses on the way social roles and identities are established through social interaction, emphasizing importance of response of other people to individual’s behavior KEY here is the TOURIST (Guest) – HOST Relationship TOURISM … viewed in many ways: Ø An Industry Ø A Sector Ø An Export (in national income accounting / GDP) TOURISM is one of the LARGEST economic sectors in the world! In the US, Tourism is the third (3rd) largest “Industry” (after #1 – Fuels & #2 – Chemicals)  3 Primary Areas of Tourism Inquiry & Analysis Ø The Tourist Ø The Tourist – Host Relationship Ø The Structure of the Tourist System SOCIOLOGY & ANTHROPOLOGY have dominated in the study of Tourism in terms of conceptualization and methodology. Sharpley argues that these two disciplines form a type of “Humanology” in their respective emphases. Economists – emphasize the Economics / Supply-&-Demand / Profit maximization Tourism Ministries – look at Arrivals / Overnight stays / Purpose, etc. Environmentalists – the “renting of the environment” / Capacities / Eutrophication Tourism’s Definitions d1 – the activities of tourists and those who cater to them … (d) tourist – any person visiting a country other than own for any purpose other than work (paid employment). d2 – (motivation emphasis) – antithesis of work; leisure activities with travel (Nash). (mobility emphasis) – temporal/spatial (time/space) separated from daily life and routines. d3 – “…study of man away from his usual habitat, of the industry which responds to their needs; and impacts of tourists on host’s socio-cultural, economic, and physical environments.” Domestic (In-country) tourism is 5 – 6 times > GREATER THAN > International Tourism Tourism is a reflection of society because it has become: Institutionalized Democratized... because it is UNIVERSALLY-expected for ALL People  CH 3: Tourism, Modernity & Post-Modernity Sociology speaks of societal evolution from: Traditional è Modern è Post-Modern Group Individualism Individual Traditions/Customs -- minimize/eliminate more “atomized” Family -- reduce family ties new identities Religion/Emotion -- reduce / forward vision new norms Regionalism -- geographic mobility Post-Modernists say that the Modernity è Post-Modernity Shift occurred in the latter part of the 20th century. TOURISM has a special place in the Modern / Post-Modern worlds. Why? á TRANSPORTATION Technological Advances: Jet planes Container Ships And there are now many examples of how visiting faraway places (TOURISM) is fused into everyday life: Ø Buying Ethnic Goods Ø Eating out at Greek / Italian / ethnic restaurants Ø Travel Channels & websites But societal change occurs at different pace / speed for all societies ($/Culture). w/ ANOMIE – “… a condition of instability resulting from a breakdown of standards and values or from a lack of purpose or ideals.” No NORMS or NORMLESSNESS á New identities * â Culture / Religion * á Consumer Culture (Consumerism) Massive Social Change In the Post-Modern World è â Traditional Politics & Political Parties … because they have not been able to deliver on their promises! And this has led to è á Nationalism á Fundamentalisms (Left / Right / Identities, etc.) á Anti-Globalization movements  CH 8: Tourism: Spiritual & Emotional Responses Blur between what are … Pilgrimage vs. Secular Tourism è depends on the meaning one gives to it! Different Religions / Spiritual Traditions “The Historic Norm” in humanity. … a belief in a “higher power,” “some divine power” impacting our lives. Religion is a very important part of ALL societies, and it manifests itself within peoples’ Attitudes and Beliefs & Actions. Religion and be dominant part of society as well (even “secular religions”). â Role of Religion can be attributed to á Industrialization & á Technology & Science Spirituality can be thought of as a personal / subjective form of being religious; Believing in “something bigger than yourself.” Stages of … > 1) Separation Stage – Arrive at destination, away from home. 2) Liminality Stage – Change in daily routing while on the road. 3) Reintegration Stage – Return to home and ‘normal,’ ‘routine life. d – Sacred Pilgrimage – a journey driven by faith, religion and spiritual fulfillment. d – Secular Tourism – fulfilling a personal vendetta or spiritual need thru tourism. “A pilgrim and tourist may do the same things, but attach different meanings to those.” 5 Characteristics of a Pilgrimage (See reading for details*) 1) Sacrifice / Danger / Hardship 2) Transformation 3) Enrichment 4) Communities 5) Return d – Frontier Travel – related to pilgrimage; exploring the realm between the “predictable” & “unpredictable” world, social barriers, geographical boundaries. Different Religions / Spiritual Traditions 4 Main Reasons for Traveling to a Religious Site 1) Spiritual / Religious Purposes 2) Heritage / Cultural Purposes 3) Special Interest 4) Planned / Impulse visit (“let’s just go there!”) Potential battle of tourists vs. pilgrims … but often, even ‘secular’ / non-religious people still feel sense of spirituality / emotion at religious sites. There is also Spirituality of tourism sites that aren’t formally considered ‘religious.’ (e.g. seaside / mountain top / countryside, etc.) Places that make people feel “free / at ease.” á Mental / Emotional Calming of the soul. Also, d – “Dark Tourism” – trend of visiting sites where death or disaster has occurred. (Distomo [Greece], Auschwitz [Germany], etc.] All of this speaks to HOW Religion / Spirituality is and can be tied to Travel and Tourism.  CH 9: Tourism and Authenticity ‘Authentic’ vs. ‘Fake’ Real -- Contrived ‘Authentic’ … something either Sought Out through tourism and travel, Or something to Escape. The Boorstin – MacCannell Debate on ‘Authenticity’ ² Boorstin school – believes tourists are ‘satisfied’ w/inauthentic, pseudo- events. ² MacCannell school – criticizes inauthentic / unnatural tours. He argues that, “living in modern, alienated societies, tourists motivated by need to experience authenticity … reflecting the deficiencies of modern life.” This debate is crucial to understanding connection between Tourism & Authenticity Through MARKETING, tourism is further “commodified” – experiences are commodified. Authenticity is often “Marketed” as ‘pre-modern’ or ‘traditional.’ (p. 224) “Perceptions of authenticity are dependent on the relationships that TOURISTS have with PEOPLE in Tourist Settings.” (p. 227) Later, … GOFFMAN – identified “Staged Authenticity” with “Front” space – where tourists are and what they “See”, and there is “Back” space – which is more local, off-the- beaten path; where locals live and relax. MacCANNELL – later adapted this into a 6-Stage continuum of increasing authenticity that tourists can seek out. COHEN – adapted MacCannell’s model to accommodate the tourist’s understanding and differentiation of “Authentic” and “Staged” experiences. Ultimately, it comes down to the tourist’s perspective. MacCANNELL – simplified “Attractions” and “Tourist Destinations” into d – ‘Markers’ -- something that informs the tourist that a site is worth seeing, that an attraction is, “the real thing.” á Brochures as affirming authenticity and as ‘pre-markers’ as important in forming tourists’ impressions. (p. 237) “Tourism also presents a threat to authenticity. This is because authenticity is not static and because “tourism is perceived to be a powerful agent of change, particularly in those societies with fragile or less dominant cultures. … Arts & Crafts in particular often lose their meaning and authenticity as they are produced on a mass scale as a commodity.” Tourism is deeply rooted in NOSTALGIA, too, è PRESERVATION of historical sites, culture, myths, stories, etc. Dual Meaning / Significance of ‘Authenticity’: 1) We may want to escape from our ‘everyday’, ‘routine’ world, 2) Or … we may want accurate, “real / other” (different) world.  CH 10: Tourism and Development Theories of Development (see CourseWeb Course Documents) o Modernization Theory o Dependency Theory § World System Theory o “Neo-Classical Counter-Revolution” o “Alternative Dependency Theory” § GDP vs PQLI (and other measures of development) Sharpley’s Table 10.5 Emphasis on Dependency Theory > Correlations Both +/- “… mass tourism can result in a variety of negative consequences for destinations, environments and societies.” (p. 249) Tourists can / do affect development and host sites. TOURISM accounts for 9% of global Gross Domestic Product (GDP), (using traditional national income accounting.) In Less Developed Counties (LDCs), tourism’s impacts and roles are even greater. Characteristics of LDCs / “underdevelopment” * Low standards of living * Poor health indicators * Low incomes * High Infant Mortality * Poor Educational outcomes How Tourism Redistributes Income from Richer è poorer countries (p. 257) TOURISM has LOW Start-Up Costs. Tourists arrive from Tourism-generating countries w/ Time & Money. ϑs THEORIES of DEVELOPMENT (see also theories of development link in Course Documents) 1) Modernization ϑ 1b. Rostow’s Stages of Development (see link in Course Documents) 2) Dependency ϑ 2b. World System ϑ 3) “Neo-Classical Counter-Revolution” ϑ 4) “Alternative Dependency ϑ -- Opposite of Dependency; Focus on Self-Sufficiency; previous emphasis on Autarky – economic independence or self-sufficiency. See Table 10.5 é Mass Tourism (vs. “Jet set” or “Elite” tourism) Some strategies of Mass Tourism include: Ø Urban Architecture Ø “Indigenous” tourism development & planning (NOT outsiders) Some characteristics of Mass Tourism: Ø Package tourism Ø Tourism in large groups Ø Little time spent at sites Alternative Tourism: Opposite d – ‘Sustainable Development’ -- development which meets the needs of present tourists and host regions, while protecting and enhancing opportunities for the future. (p. 273) ‘Eco-tourism’ and/or ‘Agro-tourism’ can be solid forms of Sustainable Tourism, but have had their problems in practice. Sharpley’s 3 Factors of Sustainable Tourism 1) Rate of Natural Resource exploitation 2) Rate of Human Waste into the ecosystem 3) Global population levels & per capita consumption SHARPLEY argues that DEPENDENCY Theory is the most relevant for Tourism / Tourism Dependency. “… although tourism contributes to economic growth, there is an inevitable truth that there are social and cultural consequences of tourism.” (p. 279) Mass Tourism has more consequences on Societies. Generally, has positive ECONOMIC impacts, but damaging to ENVIRONMENT & CULTURE. Market-based ϑs – trivialize / don’t mention Inequalities of benefits. Wealth & Power are KEY in shaping Policy and Outcomes  CH 12: The Socio-Cultural Consequences of Tourism ? How the Global Tourism Industry Impacts BOTH Tourists and Social/Cultural aspects of Host Communities? INEQUALITY permeates Tourism-generating and Tourism-receiving countries. “… the greater the gulf between the Tourism-generating country and the destination in terms of culture and economic development, the more significant the social and cultural impacts are likely to be.” (p. 306) é Tourism è é Globalization / Americanization / Westernization v Global Media v Urbanization v Industrialization (E.g. fashion, music, etc.) Factors of Tourism Development # of Tourists Current Economy’s Growth Potential Size of Host Community Presence or Absence of Tourism Development Guidelines  Different Types of Tourists è Different Impacts 1) Economically – Tourism Development can è Tourism Dependency Tourism is NOT a Panacea! In less Dependent — more diversified — economies, LESS of a Risk. 2) Size of Community — In LARGER destinations, more tourists can visit without the community feeling the impacts; In Smaller one, OPPOSITE — more pronounced! 3) Rate of Tourism Development — the rate impacts socio-cultural change. If democratically-led programming — can be somewhat “controlled” / “directed,” BUT Difficult. SOCIAL & CULTURAL CHANGES in Tourism Destinations Social Changes as, “ … the more immediate and visible effect on destination communities, and to an extent on tourists themselves …” (p. 310) *Behavior *Community structure *Gender roles *Attitudes towards foreigners Cultural Changes... are those that take place more gradually and affect more permanent fixtures of a host community. *Language *Religion *Art, etc.  COMMONLY SEEN CHANGES 1) SOCIAL CHANGE é Quality of Life in Host Community *Infrastructure *Transportation *Clean water *Sewage *Roads *Heating/Cooling *Environmental Controls (hopefully!) 2) GENDER ROLES é Gender Equality é Independence é Roles … especially in Patriarchal societies; Traditional settings. é ‘Modernity’ & Tourism – “… put strains on the traditional family structure and challenges broader social values …” (p. 311) (Many examples from my own research.) 3) CHANGES IN HOST COMMUNITY STRUCTURE ‘Desertification’ – Demographically and Environmentally. Ø é Urbanization Ø Out Migration (especially youth) Ø Seasonality è “… lack of youth to maintain populations and livelihood of rural areas.” (p. 312) [e.g. Free / Cheap houses in Italy / Greece, etc.]  4) BEHAVIORAL CHANGES Sharpley speaks of the “swapping of behavioral attitudes or moral codes” between Tourists and Hosts. “It is possible for travelers to learn from the regions they visit and take certain behaviors, or morals home with them.” d – ‘Demonstration Effect’ – “the introduction of alien values and ways of life into relatively traditional or isolated species that cause them to change their own values and modes of behavior.” (p. 314) Tourists’ Wealth may influence locals in adopting their way of life into their own culture out of desire for the same lifestyle. 5) LANGUAGE As é Tourism, é Locals learning foreign languages to communicate. “Generally, this is good thing for societies and their economies, BUT … in more remote areas, local dialects or languages begin to DIE OUT.” 6) RELIGION Largely impacted. Examples include the “Commodification” of Religions. Ø Events Ø Festivals Ø Buildings Ø Sites “… for Money and the viewing pleasure of Tourists, who may not even have any spiritual meaning or faith connected to it.” é Conflict / Exploitation of RELIGION; but it generates REVENUE, too!  7) TRADITIONAL ART Traditional Art is a staple in all societies. “Viewing / purchasing art is a way for tourists to believe they are immersing themselves into Host cultures.” “In a way, ART loses its significance when it is MASS PRODUCED for Souvenir Shops to be sold to Tourists, and often Tourists don’t truly understand the importance of the Art forms they are buying and watching. This causes ART to be trivialized.” (p. 320) Examples of Socio-Cultural Tourism Development Change é Beach Resorts in small beach towns é Installation of Souvenir Shops at famous religious sites Selling tickets to cultural dance performances Adopting behaviors and mannerisms of foreigners “Xenoi” (foreigners) / Xenophobia (fear of foreigners/strangers) MOST IMMEDIATE CHANGE CAUSED by TOURISM: SOCIAL CHANGE