Sensation and Perception PDF 8th Edition

 UPDATED, ENHANCED, and packaged with each new text—with more than 75 new media exercises to help students learn interactively! Virtual Lab CD-ROM By Bruce Goldstein...

 UPDATED, ENHANCED, and packaged with each new text—with more than 75 new media exercises to help students learn interactively! Virtual Lab CD-ROM By Bruce Goldstein, Colin Ryan, and John Baro The Virtual Lab CD-ROM includes more than 200 demonstrations and activities that help students become more engaged with sensation and perception topics, comprehend concepts through interactive exercises, and get the most out of the course: Media Interactions include drag-and-drop animations, experiments, and interactive exercises that illustrate principles in this book, as well as auditory demonstrations. Media Experiments and Demonstrations are designed so students can practice gathering data, varying many parameters to determine how changes to parameters affect perception, and analyzing the results. The more than 75 new Thomas V. PapaThomas, Rolling Eyes on a Hollow Mask additions include work by researchers from around the globe, and feature many new illusions (visual and auditory), eye movement records, hearing loss demonstrations, and more. Ted Adelson, White’s Illusion Michael Bach, Dalmation Hidden Figure  Completely integrated with the text Throughout the text, a Virtual Lab icon directs students to specific animations and videos designed to help them visualize the material about which they are reading. The number beside each icon indicates the number of the relevant media element. At the end of each chapter, the titles of related Virtual Lab exercises are listed. Accessible in three convenient ways! Virtual Labs can be accessed via the CD-ROM that is packaged with each new 1. text, through CengageNOW™ for Sensation and Perception, Eighth Edition, and through WebTutor™ on WebCT® or Blackboard®. 2. Instructors: Contact your local Cengage Learning representative to help create the package that’s just right for you and your students. 3. Virtual Lab Manual Accompanied by the Virtual Lab Manual The streamlined Virtual Lab Manual (available digitally on the CD-ROM and in a printed version) includes worksheets for the Virtual Lab experiments to encourage students to take a closer look at the labs and engage in analysis of the results. Instructors—If you would like the printed version of the Virtual Lab Manual to be packaged with each new text, please use these ISBNs when placing your textbook order: E. BRUCE GOLDSTEIN ISBN-10: 0-495-76050-1 ISBN-13: 978-0-495-76050-4. Sensation and Perception This page intentionally left blank  Eighth Edition Sensation and Perception E. Bruce Goldstein University of Pittsburgh University of Arizona Australia Brazil Japan Korea Mexico Singapore Spain United Kingdom United States iii  Sensation and Perception, Eighth Edition © 2010, 2007 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning E. Bruce Goldstein ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, Senior Publisher: Linda Schreiber scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information Editors: Jon-David Hague, Jaime A. Perkins storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of Managing Development Editor: Jeremy Judson the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher. 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Printed in Canada 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 12 11 10 09 To my wife, Barbara, more than ever and To all of the students and teachers whose suggestions helped shape this edition About the Author E. Bruce Goldstein is Professor Emeritus of Psy- chology at the University of Pittsburgh and Ad- junct Professor of Psychology at the University of Arizona. He has received the Chancellor’s Distin- guished Teaching Award from the University of Pittsburgh for his classroom teaching and text- book writing. He received his bachelor’s degree in chemical engineering from Tufts University and his PhD in experimental psychology from Brown University; he was a postdoctoral fellow in the Biology Department at Harvard University before joining the faculty at the Univer- sity of Pittsburgh. Bruce has published papers on a wide vari- ety of topics, including retinal and cortical physiology, visual attention, and the perception of pictures. He is the author of Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Ex- perience, 2nd Edition (Wadsworth, 2008), and the editor of the Blackwell Handbook of Perception (Blackwell, 2001) and the forth- coming two-volume Sage Encyclopedia of Perception (Sage, 2010).  Brief Contents 1 Introduction to Perception 3 12 Sound Localization and the Auditory Scene 291 2 Introduction to the Physiology of Perception 23 13 Speech Perception 311 3 Introduction to Vision 43 14 The Cutaneous Senses 329 4 The Visual Cortex and Beyond 73 15 The Chemical Senses 355 5 Perceiving Objects and Scenes 99 16 Perceptual Development 379 6 Visual Attention 133 Appendix Signal Detection Theory 401 7 Taking Action 155 Glossary 407 8 Perceiving Motion 177 References 425 9 Perceiving Color 201 Name Index 443 10 Perceiving Depth and Size 229 Subject Index 449 11 Sound, the Auditory System, and Pitch Perception 259 vii This page intentionally left blank  Contents Introduction to the Introduction to Physiology of 1 Perception 3 2 Perception 23 WHY READ THIS BOOK? 4 THE BRAIN: THE MIND’S COMPUTER 24 Brief History of the Physiological Approach 24 THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS 5 Basic Structure of the Brain 26 The Stimulus 5 Electricity 7 NEURONS: CELLS THAT CREATE AND TRANSMIT Experience and Action 8 ELECTRICAL SIGNALS 26 Knowledge 9 Structure of Neurons 26 DEMONSTRATION: Perceiving a Picture 10 Recording Electrical Signals in Neurons 27 METHOD: Recording From a Neuron 27 HOW TO APPROACH THE STUDY OF Chemical Basis of Action Potentials 29 PERCEPTION 11 Basic Properties of Action Potentials 30 MEASURING PERCEPTION 12 Events at the Synapse 30 Description 13 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 2.1 32 Recognition 13 NEURAL PROCESSING: EXCITATION, METHOD: Recognition 13 INHIBITION, AND INTERACTIONS BETWEEN Detection 13 NEURONS 32 METHOD: Determining the Absolute Threshold 13 Excitation, Inhibition, and Neural Responding 32 METHOD: Determining the Difference Threshold 15 Introduction to Receptive Fields 34 Magnitude Estimation 16 METHOD: Determining a Neuron’s Receptive Field 34 METHOD: Magnitude Estimation 16 Search 17 THE SENSORY CODE: HOW THE ENVIRONMENT IS REPRESENTED BY THE FIRING OF Other Methods of Measurement 17 NEURONS 36 SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: THRESHOLD Specificity Coding: Representation by the Firing of Single MEASUREMENT CAN BE INFLUENCED BY HOW Neurons 36 A PERSON CHOOSES TO RESPOND 18 Distributed Coding: Representation by the Firing of Groups ❚ TEST YOURSELF 1.1 18 of Neurons 38 Think About It 19 Sparse Coding: Distributed Coding With Just a Few If You Want to Know More 19 Neurons 38 Key Terms 19 SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: THE MIND–BODY Media Resources 19 PROBLEM 39 VL VIRTUAL LAB 20 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 2.2 39 Think About It 40 ix If You Want to Know More 40 Key Terms 40 Media Resources 40 VL VIRTUAL LAB 40 The Visual Cortex and 4 Beyond 73 FOLLOWING THE SIGNALS FROM RETINA TO CORTEX 74 The Visual System 74 Introduction Processing in the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus 75 3 to Vision 43 METHOD: Determining Retinotopic Maps by Recording From Neurons 76 FOCUSING LIGHT ONTO THE RETINA 44 Receptive Fields of Neurons in the Striate Cortex 77 Light: The Stimulus for Vision 44 DO FEATURE DETECTORS PLAY A ROLE IN The Eye 44 PERCEPTION? 79 Light Is Focused by the Eye 44 Selective Adaptation and Feature Detectors 79 DEMONSTRATION: Becoming Aware of What Is in METHOD: Selective Adaptation to Orientation 80 Focus 45 Selective Rearing and Feature Detectors 80 TRANSFORMING LIGHT INTO ELECTRICITY 47 MAPS AND COLUMNS IN THE STRIATE CORTEX 82 The Visual Receptors and Transduction 47 Maps in the Striate Cortex 82 How Does Transduction Occur? 47 METHOD: Brain Imaging 82 PIGMENTS AND PERCEPTION 50 Columns in the Striate Cortex 84 Distribution of the Rods and Cones 50 How Is an Object Represented in the Striate Cortex? 86 DEMONSTRATION: Becoming Aware of the Blind ❚ TEST YOURSELF 4.1 87 Spot 52 DEMONSTRATION: Filling in the Blind Spot 52 STREAMS: PATHWAYS FOR WHAT, WHERE, AND Dark Adaptation of the Rods and Cones 52 HOW 87 METHOD: Measuring Dark Adaptation 53 Streams for Information About What and Where 88 Spectral Sensitivity of the Rods and Cones 56 METHOD: Brain Ablation 88 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 3.1 57 Streams for Information About What and How 89 METHOD: Dissociations in Neuropsychology 89 NEURAL CONVERGENCE AND PERCEPTION 58 MODULARITY: STRUCTURES FOR FACES, PLACES, Why Rods Result in Greater Sensitivity Than Cones 58 AND BODIES 91 Why We Use Our Cones to See Details 60 Face Neurons in the Monkey’s IT Cortex 92 DEMONSTRATION: Foveal Versus Peripheral Acuity 60 Areas for Faces, Places, and Bodies in the Human Brain 92 LATERAL INHIBITION AND PERCEPTION 61 SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: HOW DO NEURONS What the Horseshoe Crab Teaches Us About BECOME SPECIALIZED? 94 Inhibition 62 Is Neural Selectivity Shaped by Evolution? 94 Lateral Inhibition and Lightness Perception 62 How Neurons Can Be Shaped by Experience 94 DEMONSTRATION: Creating Mach Bands in Shadows 64 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 4.2 95 DEMONSTRATION: Simultaneous Contrast 66 A Display That Can’t Be Explained by Lateral Think About It 95 If You Want to Know More 96 Inhibition 67 Key Terms 96 SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: PERCEPTION IS Media Resources 97 INDIRECT 68 VL VIRTUAL LAB 97 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 3.2 68 Think About It 68 If You Want to Know More 69 Key Terms 69 Media Resources 70 VL VIRTUAL LAB 70 x Contents  Key Terms 129 Media Resources 129 VL VIRTUAL LAB 129 Perceiving Objects and 5 Scenes 99 WHY IS IT SO DIFFICULT TO DESIGN A PERCEIVING MACHINE? 101 The Stimulus on the Receptors Is Ambiguous 101 Objects Can Be Hidden or Blurred 102 Objects Look Different From Different Viewpoints 102 Visual THE GESTALT APPROACH TO OBJECT 6 Attention 133 PERCEPTION 104 DEMONSTRATION: Making Illusory Contours ATTENTION AND PERCEIVING THE Vanish 104 ENVIRONMENT 134 The Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization 105 Why Is Selective Attention Necessary? 134 DEMONSTRATION: Finding Faces in a Landscape 107 How Is Selective Attention Achieved? 135 Perceptual Segregation: How Objects Are Separated From What Determines How We Scan a Scene? 135 the Background 108 HOW DOES ATTENTION AFFECT OUR ABILITY TO The Gestalt “Laws” as Heuristics 109 PERCEIVE? 137 RECOGNITION-BY-COMPONENTS THEORY 110 Perception Can Occur Without Focused Attention 137 DEMONSTRATION: Non-Accidental Properties 111 Perception Can Be Affected by a Lack of Focused ❚ TEST YOURSELF 5.1 113 Attention 138 DEMONSTRATION: Change Detection 139 PERCEIVING SCENES AND OBJECTS IN ❚ TEST YOURSELF 6.1 141 SCENES 114 Perceiving the Gist of a Scene 114 DOES ATTENTION ENHANCE PERCEPTION? 141 METHOD: Using a Mask to Achieve Brief Stimulus Effects of Attention on Information Processing 141 Presentations 114 Effects of Attention on Perception 142 Regularities in the Environment: Information for Perceiving 115 ATTENTION AND EXPERIENCING A COHERENT DEMONSTRATION: Shape From Shading 116 WORLD 143 DEMONSTRATION: Visualizing Scenes and Objects 117 Why Is Binding Necessary? 143 The Role of Inference in Perception 118 Feature Integration Theory 144 DEMONSTRATION: Searching for Conjunctions 145 Revisiting the Science Project: Designing a Perceiving Machine 119 The Physiological Approach to Binding 146 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF OBJECT AND SCENE THE PHYSIOLOGY OF ATTENTION 146 PERCEPTION 120 SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: ATTENTION IN Neurons That Respond to Perceptual Grouping and AUTISM 148 Figure–Ground 120 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 6.2 150 How Does the Brain Respond to Objects? 121 Think About It 150 Connecting Neural Activity and Perception 122 If You Want to Know More 151 METHOD: Region-of-Interest Approach 122 Key Terms 152 Media Resources 152 SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: MODELS OF BRAIN VL VIRTUAL LAB 152 ACTIVITY THAT CAN PREDICT WHAT A PERSON IS LOOKING AT 124 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 5.2 127 Think About It 127 If You Want to Know More 128 Contents xi  Motion Provides Information About Objects 179 DEMONSTRATION: Perceiving a Camouflaged Bird 179 STUDYING MOTION PERCEPTION 180 When Do We Perceive Motion? 180 Comparing Real and Apparent Motion 181 What We Want to Explain 182 MOTION PERCEPTION: INFORMATION IN THE ENVIRONMENT 183 Taking 7 Action 155 NEURAL FIRING TO MOTION ACROSS THE RETINA 184 Motion of a Stimulus Across the Retina: The Aperture THE ECOLOGICAL APPROACH TO Problem 184 PERCEPTION 156 DEMONSTRATION: Motion of a Bar Across an The Moving Observer and Information in the Aperture 185 Environment 156 Motion of Arrays of Dots on the Retina 186 Self-Produced Information 157 METHOD: Microstimulation 188 The Senses Do Not Work in Isolation 158 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 8.1 188 DEMONSTRATION: Keeping Your Balance 158 NAVIGATING THROUGH THE ENVIRONMENT 159 TAKING EYE MOTIONS INTO ACCOUNT: THE COROLLARY DISCHARGE 189 Other Strategies for Navigating 159 The Physiology of Navigation 161 Corollary Discharge Theory 189 Behavioral Demonstrations of Corollary Discharge ❚ TEST YOURSELF 7.1 165 Theory 190 ACTING ON OBJECTS: REACHING AND DEMONSTRATION: Eliminating the Image Displacement Signal With an Afterimage 190 GRASPING 165 DEMONSTRATION: Seeing Motion by Pushing on Your Affordances: What Objects Are Used For 165 Eyelid 190 The Physiology of Reaching and Grasping 166 Physiological Evidence for Corollary Discharge Theory 191 OBSERVING OTHER PEOPLE’S ACTIONS 168 PERCEIVING BIOLOGICAL MOTION 192 Mirroring Others’ Actions in the Brain 168 Brain Activation by Point-Light Walkers 192 Predicting People’s Intentions 169 Linking Brain Activity and the Perception of Biological Mirror Neurons and Experience 170 Motion 193 SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: CONTROLLING METHOD: Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation MOVEMENT WITH THE MIND 171 (TMS) 193 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 7.2 172 SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: GOING BEYOND THE Think About It 173 STIMULUS 194 If You Want to Know More 173 Implied Motion 194 Key Terms 173 Apparent Motion 195 Media Resources 174 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 8.2 195 VL VIRTUAL LAB 174 Think About It 196 If You Want to Know More 196 Key Terms 197 Media Resources 197 VL VIRTUAL LAB 197 Perceiving 8 Motion 177 FUNCTIONS OF MOTION PERCEPTION 178 Motion Helps Us Understand Events in Our Environment 178 Motion Attracts Attention 179 xii Contents  SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: EXPERIENCES THAT ARE CREATED BY THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 224 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 9.3 224 Think About It 224 If You Want to Know More 225 Key Terms 226 Media Resources 226 VL VIRTUAL LAB 227 Perceiving 9 Color 201 INTRODUCTION TO COLOR 202 What Are Some Functions of Color Vision? 202 What Colors Do We Perceive? 203 Color and Wavelength 204 Wavelengths Do Not Have Color! 206 TRICHROMATIC THEORY OF COLOR VISION 207 Behavioral Evidence for the Theory 207 The Theory: Vision Is Trichromatic 207 Perceiving Depth Physiology of Trichromatic Theory 207 10 and Size 229 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 9.1 211 OCULOMOTOR CUES 231 COLOR DEFICIENCY 211 DEMONSTRATION: Feelings in Your Eyes 231 Monochromatism 212 Dichromatism 212 MONOCULAR CUES 231 Physiological Mechanisms of Receptor-Based Color Pictorial Cues 231 Deficiency 213 Motion-Produced Cues 233 DEMONSTRATION: Deletion and Accretion 234 OPPONENT-PROCESS THEORY OF COLOR VISION 213 BINOCULAR DEPTH INFORMATION 235 Behavioral Evidence for the Theory 213 Binocular Disparity 235 DEMONSTRATION: The Colors of the Flag 214 DEMONSTRATION: Two Eyes: Two Viewpoints 235 DEMONSTRATION: Afterimages and Simultaneous Connecting Disparity Information and the Perception of Contrast 214 Depth 238 DEMONSTRATION: Visualizing Colors 214 DEMONSTRATION: Binocular Depth From a Picture, The Theory: Vision Is An Opponent Process 215 Without a Stereoscope 238 The Physiology of Opponent-Process Vision 215 The Correspondence Problem 240 COLOR IN THE CORTEX 217 DEPTH INFORMATION ACROSS SPECIES 240 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 9.2 217 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF DEPTH PERCEPTION 242 Neurons That Respond to Pictorial Depth 242 PERCEIVING COLORS UNDER CHANGING Neurons That Respond to Binocular Disparity 242 ILLUMINATION 217 Connecting Binocular Depth Cells and Depth DEMONSTRATION: Color Perception Under Changing Perception 242 Illumination 218 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 10.1 243 Chromatic Adaptation 219 DEMONSTRATION: Adapting to Red 219 PERCEIVING SIZE 243 The Effect of the Surroundings 220 The Holway and Boring Experiment 244 DEMONSTRATION: Color and the Surroundings 220 Size Constancy 246 Memory and Color 220 DEMONSTRATION: Perceiving Size at a Distance 247 DEMONSTRATION: Size–Distance Scaling and Emmert’s LIGHTNESS CONSTANCY 220 Law 247 Intensity Relationships: The Ratio Principle 221 Lightness Perception Under Uneven Illumination 221 VISUAL ILLUSIONS 249 DEMONSTRATION: The Penumbra and Lightness The Müller-Lyer Illusion 249 Perception 222 DEMONSTRATION: Measuring the Müller-Lyer DEMONSTRATION: Perceiving Lightness at a Illusion 249 Corner 223 DEMONSTRATION: The Müller-Lyer Illusion With Books 250 Contents xiii The Ponzo Illusion 251 PITCH AND THE BRAIN 283 The Ames Room 251 Linking Physiological Responding and Perception 283 The Moon Illusion 252 How the Auditory Cortex Is Shaped by Experience 284 SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: DISTANCE SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: COCHLEAR PERCEPTION AND PERCEIVED EFFORT 253 IMPLANTS—WHERE SCIENCE AND CULTURE ❚ TEST YOURSELF 10.2 254 MEET 285 The Technology 286 Think About It 254 If You Want to Know More 255 The Controversy 287 Key Terms 256 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 11.3 287 Media Resources 256 Think About It 287 VL VIRTUAL LAB 256 If You Want to Know More 287 Key Terms 288 Media Resources 288 VL VIRTUAL LAB 289 Space Shuttle launch 150 ground zero (150) Military jet 140 on runway (140) Pain threshold (130) 130 Rock concert in 120 front row (120) 110 Loud basketball or 100 hockey crowd (100) 90 Heavy traffic (80) 80 70 Normal 60 conversation (60) 50 Library (40) Whisper at 5 feet (20) 40 30 20 Sound, the Auditory 10 System, and Pitch 11 Threshold of 0 hearing (0) dB Perception 259 THE SOUND STIMULUS 261 Sound Localization Sound as Pressure Changes 261 and the Auditory Pressure Changes: Pure Tones 262 Pressure Changes: Complex Tones 263 12 Scene 291 PERCEIVING SOUND 264 AUDITORY LOCALIZATION 292 Loudness 264 DEMONSTRATION: Sound Localization 292 Pitch 265 Binaural Cues for Sound Location 293 The Range of Hearing 265 Monaural Cue for Localization 295 Timbre 267 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF AUDITORY ❚ TEST YOURSELF 11.1 268 LOCALIZATION 297 Narrowly Tuned ITD Neurons 297 THE EAR 268 Broadly Tuned ITD Neurons 298 The Outer Ear 268 The Middle Ear 268 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 12.1 298 The Inner Ear 270 PERCEPTUALLY ORGANIZING SOUNDS IN THE THE REPRESENTATION OF FREQUENCY IN THE ENVIRONMENT 299 COCHLEA 272 Auditory Scene Analysis 299 Békésy’s Place Theory of Hearing 273 Principles of Auditory Grouping 300 Evidence for Place Theory 274 HEARING INSIDE ROOMS 303 METHOD: Neural Frequency Tuning Curves 274 Perceiving Two Sounds That Reach the Ears at Different METHOD: Auditory Masking 275 Times 304 How the Basilar Membrane Vibrates to Complex Tones 276 DEMONSTRATION: The Precedence Effect 305 Updating Békésy 277 Architectural Acoustics 305 How the Timing of Neural Firing Can Signal Frequency 277 SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: INTERACTIONS Hearing Loss Due to Hair Cell Damage 278 BETWEEN VISION AND HEARING 306 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 11.2 279 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 12.2 307 Think About It 307 CENTRAL AUDITORY PROCESSING 280 If You Want to Know More 308 Pathway From the Cochlea to the Cortex 280 Key Terms 308 Auditory Areas in the Cortex 280 Media Resources 308 VL VIRTUAL LAB 308 What and Where Streams for Hearing 281 xiv Contents  Mechanoreceptors 331 n Pathways From Skin to Cortex 331 io Maps of the Body on the Cortex 332 t p The Plasticity of Cortical Body Maps 333 e PERCEIVING DETAILS 334 c er METHOD: Measuring Tactile Acuity 335 P Receptor Mechanisms for Tactile Acuity 335 ch DEMONSTRATION: Comparing Two-Point Thresholds 335 ee Speech Cortical Mechanisms for Tactile Acuity 336 p 13 S Perception 311 PERCEIVING VIBRATION 337 PERCEIVING TEXTURE 338 THE SPEECH STIMULUS 312 DEMONSTRATION: Perceiving Texture With a Pen 339 The Acoustic Signal 312 Basic Units of Speech 313 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 14.1 339 THE VARIABLE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERCEIVING OBJECTS 340 PHONEMES AND THE ACOUSTIC SIGNAL 315 DEMONSTRATION: Identifying Objects 340 Variability From Context 315 Identifying Objects by Haptic Exploration 340 Variability From Different Speakers 315 The Physiology of Tactile Object Perception 341 INFORMATION FOR PHONEME PERCEPTION 316 PAIN 343 Categorical Perception 316 Questioning the Direct Pathway Model of Pain 343 Information Provided by the Face 318 The Gate Control Model 345 Information From Our Knowledge of Language 318 Cognition and Pain 345 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 13.1 319 The Brain and Pain 346 INFORMATION FOR SPOKEN WORD SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: PAIN IN SOCIAL PERCEPTION 319 SITUATIONS 349 Information From Sentence Context 319 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 14.2 349 DEMONSTRATION: Perceiving Degraded Sentences 319 Think About It 350 DEMONSTRATION: Organizing Strings of Sounds 320 If You Want to Know More 350 Information From Speaker Characteristics 322 Key Terms 351 Media Resources 351 SPEECH PERCEPTION AND THE BRAIN 323 VL VIRTUAL LAB 351 Cortical Location of Speech Perception 323 Experience-Dependent Plasticity 324 SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: SPEECH PERCEPTION AND ACTION 324 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 13.2 325 Think About It 325 If You Want to Know More 326 Key Terms 326 Media Resources 326 VL VIRTUAL LAB 327 The Chemical 15 Senses 355 THE OLFACTORY SYSTEM 356 Functions of Olfaction 356 Detecting Odors 357 METHOD: Measuring the Detection Threshold 357 Identifying Odors 358 DEMONSTRATION: Naming and Odor Identification 358 The Cutaneous The Puzzle of Olfactory Quality 358 14 Senses 329 THE NEURAL CODE FOR OLFACTORY QUALITY 359 OVERVIEW OF THE CUTANEOUS SYSTEM 330 The Olfactory Mucosa 359 The Skin 330 Olfactory Receptor Neurons 359 Contents xv Activating Olfactory Receptor Neurons 361 PERCEIVING FACES 387 METHOD: Calcium Imaging 361 Recognizing Their Mother’s Face 387 Activating the Olfactory Bulb 361 Is There a Special Mechanism for Perceiving Faces? 388 METHOD: Optical Imaging 362 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 16.1 389 METHOD: 2-Deoxyglucose Technique 362 PERCEIVING OBJECT UNITY 389 HIGHER-ORDER OLFACTORY PROCESSING 364 Olfaction in the Environment 364 HEARING 391 The Physiology of Higher-Order Processing 365 Threshold for Hearing a Tone 391 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 15.1 366 Recognizing Their Mother’s Voice 391 PERCEIVING SPEECH 392 THE TASTE SYSTEM 366 The Categorical Perception of Phonemes 393 Functions of Taste 366 Experience and Speech Perception 394 Basic Taste Qualities 367 INTERMODAL PERCEPTION 394 THE NEURAL CODE FOR TASTE QUALITY 367 Structure of the Taste System 367 OLFACTION AND TASTE 395 Distributed Coding 369 SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: THE UNITY OF Specificity Coding 370 PERCEPTION 396 METHOD: Paired Comparison 396 THE PERCEPTION OF FLAVOR 372 Flavor ⫽ Taste ⫹ Olfaction 373 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 16.2 397 DEMONSTRATION: “Tasting” With and Without the Think About It 397 Nose 373 If You Want to Know More 398 The Physiology of Flavor Perception 373 Key Terms 399 Media Resources 399 SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: INDIVIDUAL VL VIRTUAL LAB 399 DIFFERENCES IN TASTING 374 ❚ TEST YOURSELF 15.2 376 Think About It 376 APPENDIX If You Want to Know More 376 Key Terms 377 Media Resources 377 Signal Detection Theory 401 VL VIRTUAL LAB 377 A SIGNAL DETECTION EXPERIMENT 401 SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY 403 Signal and Noise 403 Probability Distributions 404 The Criterion 404 The Effect of Sensitivity on the ROC Curve 405 Glossary 407 References 425 Name Index 443 Subject Index 449 Perceptual 16 Development 379 BASIC VISUAL CAPACITIES 380 Visual Acuity 380 METHODS: Preferential Looking and Visual Evoked Potential 380 Contrast Sensitivity 383 Perceiving Color 384 METHOD: Habituation 385 Perceiving Depth 386 xvi Contents  Virtual Lab Contents 14. Pyramid Illusion 64 Chapter 1 15. Simultaneous Contrast 66 1. The Method of Limits 13 16. Simultaneous Contrast: Dynamic 66 2. Measuring Illusions 13 17. Simultaneous Contrast 2 66 3. Measurement Fluctuation and Error 14 18. White’s Illusion 67 4. Adjustment and PSE 14 19. Craik-Obrien-Cornsweet Effect 67 5. Method of Constant Stimuli 14 20. Criss-Cross Illusion 67 6. Just Noticeable Difference 15 21. Haze Illusion 67 7. Weber’s Law and Weber Fraction 15 22. Knill and Kersten’s Illusion 67 8. DL vs. Weight 15 23. Koffka Ring 67 24. The Corrugated Plaid 67 Chapter 2 25. Snake Illusion 67 26. Hermann Grid, Curving 67 1. Structure of a Neuron 27 2. Oscilloscopes and Intracellular Recording 28 3. Resting Potential 28 Chapter 4 4. Phases of Action Potential 29 1. The Visual Pathways 75 5. Nerve Impulse Coding and Stimulus Strength 30 2. Visual Cortex of the Cat 77 6. Synaptic Transmission 30 3. Simple Cells in the Cortex 78 7. Excitation and Inhibition 32 4. Complex Cells in the Cortex 78 8. Simple Neural Circuits 32 5. Contrast Sensitivity 79 9. Receptive Fields of Retinal Ganglion Cells 35 6. Orientation Aftereffect 80 10. Mapping Receptive Fields 35 7. Size Aftereffect 80 11. Receptive Field Mapping 35 8. Development in the Visual Cortex 81 12. Stimulus Size and Receptive Fields 35 9. Retinotopy Movie: Ring 82 13. Receptive Fields and Stimulus Size and Shape 35 10. Retinotopy Movie: Wedge 82 11. What and Where Streams 89 Chapter 3 1. A Day Without Sight 44 Chapter 5 2. The Human Eye 44 1. Robotic Vehicle Navigation: DARPA Urban Challenge 101 3. Filling In 52 2. Apparent Movement 104 4. Types of Cones 57 3. Linear and Curved Illusory Contours 105 5. Cross Section of the Retina 58 4. Enhancing Illusory Contours 105 6. Visual Path Within the Eyeball 58 5. Context and Perception: The Hering Illusion 105 7. Receptor Wiring and Sensitivity 59 6. Context and Perception: The Poggendorf Illusion 105 8. Receptor Wiring and Acuity 61 7. Ambiguous Reversible Cube 105 9. Lateral Inhibition 62 8. Perceptual Organization: The Dalmatian Dog 105 10. Lateral Inhibition in the Hermann Grid 63 9. Law of Simplicity or Good Figure 105 11. Receptive Fields of Retinal Ganglion Cells 63 10. Law of Similarity 106 12. Intensity and Brightness 64 11. Law of Good Continuation 106 13. Vasarely Illusion 64 12. Law of Closure 106 xvii  13. Law of Proximity 106 24. Line-Motion Effect 195 14. Law of Common Fate 107 25. Context and Apparent Speed 195 15. Real-World Figure–Ground Ambiguity 108 16. Figure–Ground Ambiguity 109 17. Perceiving Rapidly Flashed Stimuli 114 Chapter 9 18. Rotating Mask 1 117 1. Color Mixing 205 19. Rotating Mask 2 117 2. Cone Response Profiles and Hue 207 20. Rotating Mask 3 117 3. Cone Response Profiles and Perceived Color 207 21. Global Precedence 128 4. Color Arrangement Test 211 5. Rod Monochromacy 212 Chapter 6 6. Dichromacy 212 7. Missing Blue–Yellow Channel 213 1. Eye Movements While Viewing a Scene 135 8. “Oh Say Can You See” Afterimage Demonstration 214 2. Task-Driven Eye Movements 137 9. Mixing Complementary Colors 214 3. Perception Without Focused Attention 137 10. Strength of Blue–Yellow Mechanisms 216 4. Inattentional Blindness Stimuli 138 11. Strength of Red–Green Mechanism 216 5. Change Detection: Gradual Changes 140 12. Opponent-Process Coding of Hue 216 6. Change Detection: Airplane 140 13. Checker-Shadow Illusion 223 7. Change Detection: Farm 140 14. Corrugated Plaid Illusion 1 223 8. Change Blindness: Harborside 140 15. Corrugated Plaid Illusion 2 223 9. Change Detection: Money 140 16. Impossible Steps 223 10. Change Detection: Sailboats 140 17. Troxler Effect 224 11. Change Detection: Tourists 140 12. Feature Analysis 152 Chapter 10 Chapter 7 1. Convergence 231 1. Flow From Walking Down a Hallway 157 2. Shape From Shading 233 2. Stimuli Used in Warren Experiment 159 3. The Horopter and Corresponding Points 236 3. Pierno Stimuli 169 4. Disparity and Retinal Location 237 4. Neural Prosthesis 172 5. Pictures 238 6. Outlines 238 7. Depth Perception 238 Chapter 8 8. Random-Dot Stereogram 239 1. Motion Providing Organization: The Hidden Bird 179 9. The Müller-Lyer Illusion 249 2. Perceptual Organization: The Dalmatian Dog 179 10. The Ponzo Illusion 251 3. Motion Parallax and Object Form 180 11. Size Perception and Depth 251 4. Shape From Movement 180 12. Horizontal–Vertical Illusion 253 5. Form and Motion 180 13. Zollner Illusion 253 6. Motion Reference 180 14. Context and Perception: The Hering Illusion 253 7. Motion Binding 180 15. Context and Perception: The Poggendorf Illusion 253 8. The Phi Phenomenon, Space, and Time 180 16. Poggendorf Illusion 253 9. Illusory Contour Motion 180 10. Apparent Movement and Figural Selection 180 11. Motion Capture 180 Chapter 11 12. Induced Movement 181 1. Decibel Scale 263 13. Waterfall Illusion 181 2. Loudness Scaling 264 14. Spiral Motion Aftereffect 181 3. Tone Height and Tone Chroma 265 15. Flow From Walking Down a Hallway 184 4. Periodicity Pitch: Eliminating the Fundamental and Lower 16. Aperture Problem 185 Harmonics 265 17. Barberpole Illusion 185 5. Periodicity Pitch: St. Martin’s Chimes With Harmonics 18. Cortical Activation by Motion 187 Removed 265 19. Corollary Discharge Model 189 6. Frequency Response of the Ear 265 20. Biological Motion 1 192 7. Harmonics of a Gong 267 21. Biological Motion 2 192 8. Effect of Harmonics on Timbre 267 22. Motion and Introduced Occlusion 195 9. Timbre of a Piano Tone Played Backward 267 23. Field Effects and Apparent Movement 195 10. Cochlear Mechanics: Cilia Movement 271 xviii Virtual Lab Contents  11. Cochlear Mechanics: Traveling Waves 273 12. Masking High and Low Frequencies 275 Chapter 13 13. Cochlear Mechanics: Cochlear Amplifier 277 1. Categorical Perception 316 14. Hearing Loss 278 2. The McGurk Effect 318 15. Cochear Implant: Environmental Sounds 287 3. Speechreading 318 16. Cochlear Implant: Music 287 4. Statistical Learning Stimuli 321 17. Cochlear Implant: Speech 287 5. Phantom Words 323 Chapter 12 Chapter 14 1. Interaural Level Difference as a Cue for Sound 1. Anatomy of the Skin 331 Localization 294 2. Surfing the Web With Touch 338 2. Grouping by Similarity of Timbre: The Wessel 3. Gate Control System 345 Demonstration 300 4. Children and Chronic Pain 345 3. Grouping by Pitch and Temporal Closeness 301 4. Effect of Repetition on Grouping by Pitch 301 Chapter 15 5. Captor Tone Demonstration 301 1. The Sense of Smell 357 6. Grouping by Similarity of Pitch 302 2. Olfactory System 359 7. Octave Illusion 302 3. Taste System 367 8. Chromatic Scale Illusion 302 4. Anti–Sweet Tooth Gum 370 9. Auditory Good Continuation 303 10. Melody Schema 303 11. Perceiving Interleaved Melodies 303 Chapter 16 12. Layering Naturalistic Sounds 303 1. Preferential Looking Procedure 381 13. The Precedence Effect 304 2. Rod Moving Behind Occluder 390 14. Reverberation Time 305 3. Eye Movements Following Moving Ball 391 15. Sound and Vision 1: Crossing or Colliding Balls 307 4. Testing Intermodal Perception in Infants 394 16. Sound and Vision 2: Rolling Ball 307 17. Sound and Vision 3: Flashing Dot 307 Virtual Lab Contents xix This page intentionally left blank Demonstrations Perceiving a Picture 10 Color Perception Under Changing Illumination 218 Becoming Aware of What Is in Focus 45 Adapting to Red 219 Becoming Aware of the Blind Spot 52 Color and the Surroundings 220 Filling in the Blind Spot 52 The Penumbra and Lightness Perception 222 Foveal Versus Peripheral Acuity 60 Perceiving Lightness at a Corner 223 Creating Mach Bands in Shadows 64 Feelings in Your Eyes 231 Simultaneous Contrast 66 Deletion and Accretion 234 Making Illusory Contours Vanish 104 Two Eyes: Two Viewpoints 235 Finding Faces in a Landscape 107 Binocular Depth From a Picture, Without a Stereoscope 238 Non-Accidental Properties 111 Perceiving Size at a Distance 247 Shape From Shading 116 Size–Distance Scaling and Emmert’s Law 247 Visualizing Scenes and Objects 117 Measuring the Müller-Lyer Illusion 249 Change Detection 139 The Müller-Lyer Illusion With Books 250 Searching for Conjunctions 145 Sound Localization 292 Keeping Your Balance 158 The Precedence Effect 305 Perceiving a Camouflaged Bird 179 Perceiving Degraded Sentences 319 Motion of a Bar Across an Aperture 185 Organizing Strings of Sounds 320 Eliminating the Image Displacement Signal With an Comparing Two-Point Thresholds 335 Afterimage 190 Perceiving Texture With a Pen 339 Seeing Motion by Pushing on Your Eyelid 190 Identifying Objects 340 The Colors of the Flag 214 Naming and Odor Identification 358 Afterimages and Simultaneous Contrast 214 “Tasting” With and Without the Nose 373 Visualizing Colors 214 xxi This page intentionally left blank  Preface W hen I first began working on this book, Hubel and Wiesel were mapping orientation columns in the striate cortex and were five years away from receiving their out with little trouble, thereby maximizing the prob- ability that students will do them. Some examples: Becoming Aware of the Blind Spot (Chapter 3); Non- Nobel Prize; Amoore’s stereochemical theory, based largely Accidental Properties (Chapter 5—new); The Penum- on psychophysical evidence, was a prominent explanation bra and Lightness Perception (Chapter 9); The Prece- for odor recognition; and one of the hottest new discoveries dence Effect (Chapter 12); Perceiving Texture With a in perception was that the response properties of neurons Pen (Chapter 14). could be influenced by experience. Today, specialized areas Methods It is important not only to present the facts in the human brain have been mapped using brain imaging, of perception, but also to make students aware of how olfactory receptors have been revealed using genetic meth- these facts were obtained. Highlighted Methods sec- ods, and the idea that the perceptual system is tuned to reg- tions, which are integrated into the ongoing discus- ularities in the environment is now supported by a wealth of sion, emphasize the importance of methods, and the both behavioral and physiological research. highlighting makes it easier to refer back to them But some things haven’t changed. Teachers still stand when referenced later in the book. Examples: Mea- in front of classrooms to teach students about perception, suring Dark Adaptation (Chapter 3); Dissociations and students still read textbooks that reinforce what they in Neuropsychology (Chapter 4); Auditory Masking are learning in the classroom. Another thing that hasn’t (Chapter 11). changed is that teachers prefer texts that are easy for stu- dents to read, that present both classic studies and up-to- Something to Consider This end-of-chapter feature date research, and that present both the facts of perception offers the opportunity to consider especially in- and overarching themes and principles. teresting new findings. Examples: The Mind–Body When I began teaching perception, I looked at the text- Problem (Chapter 2—new); How Do Neurons Become books that were available and was disappointed, because Specialized? (Chapter 4); Interactions Between Vision none of them seemed to be written for students. They pre- and Hearing (Chapter 12); Individual Differences in sented “the facts,” but not in a way that seemed very interest- Tasting (Chapter 15). ing or inviting. I therefore wrote the first edition of Sensation and Perception with the idea of involving students in their Test Yourself questions appear in the middle and at the study of perception by presenting the material as a story. The end of each chapter. These questions are broad enough story is a fascinating one, because it is a narrative of one dis- so students have to unpack the questions themselves, covery following from another, and a scientific “whodunit” thereby making them more active participants in their in which the goal is to uncover the hidden mechanisms re- studying. sponsible for our ability to perceive. Think About It The Think About It section at the end of While my goal of writing this book has been to tell a each chapter poses questions that require students to story, this is, after all, a textbook designed for teaching. So apply what they have learned and that take them be- in addition to presenting the story of perceptual research, yond the material in the chapter. this book also contains a number of features, all of which appeared in the seventh edition, that are designed to high- If You Want to Know More appears at the end of each light specific material and to help students learn. chapter, and invites students to look into topics that were not fully covered in the chapter. A specific finding is described and key references are presented to pro- Features vide a starting point for further investigation. Virtual Lab The Virtual Lab feature of this book en- Demonstrations have been a popular feature of this ables students to view demonstrations and become book for many editions. They are integrated into the participants in mini-experiments. The Virtual Lab flow of the text and are easy enough to be carried has been completely revamped in this edition. More xxiii  than 80 new items have been added to the 150 items CengageNOW™ for Goldstein’s Sensation carried over from the seventh edition. Most of these new items have been generously provided by research- and Perception, Eighth Edition ers in vision, hearing, and perceptual development. 0-495-80731-1 Each item is indicated in the chapter by this num- CengageNOW™ is an online teaching and learning resource bered icon: VL. Students can access the Virtual Lab that gives you more control in less time and delivers better in a number of ways: the CD-ROM, Perception Psy- outcomes—NOW. Flexible assignment and gradebook op- chologyNow, or WebTutor resource at www.cengage tions provide you more control while saving you valuable.com/psychology/goldstein. time in planning and managing your course assignments. CengageNOW™ Personalized Study is a diagnostic tool con- Full-Color Illustrations Perception, of all subjects, sisting of chapter-specific pre- and post-tests and study plans should be illustrated in color, and so I was especially that utilize multimedia resources to help students master pleased when the seventh edition became “full-color.” the book’s concepts. The study plans direct students to in- What pleases me about the illustrations is not only teractive Virtual Labs featuring animations, experiments, how beautiful the color looks, but how well it serves demonstrations, videos, and eBook pages from the text. Stu- pedagogy. The 535 figures in this edition (140 of them dents can use the program on their own, or you can assign it new) include photographs, which use color to illus- and track their progress in your online gradebook. trate both stimuli from experiments and perception in real-world contexts; graphs and diagrams; ana- tomical diagrams; and the results of brain-imaging experiments. Changes in This Edition Here are some of the changes in this edition, which have been made both to make the book easier to read and to keep Supplement Package current with the latest research. Instructor’s Manual With Test Bank Taking Student Feedback Into Account 0-495-60151-9 In past revisions I have made changes based on feedback Written by Stephen Wurst of SUNY at Oswego. For each that professors have provided based on their knowledge of chapter, this manual contains a detailed chapter outline, the field and their experience in teaching from the book. In learning objectives, a chapter summary, key terms with page this edition, I have, for the first time, made use of extensive references, summary of labs on the Virtual Lab CD-ROM, feedback provided by students based on their experience in and suggested websites, films, demonstrations, activities, using the book. I asked each of the 150 students in my class and lecture topics. The test bank includes 40 multiple-choice to write a paragraph in which they identified one thing in questions (with correct answer, page reference, and question each chapter they felt could be made clearer. My students type) and 7 to 8 essay questions per chapter. identified where and why they were having problems, and often suggested changes in wording or organization. When just one or two students commented on a particular section, PowerLecture With JoinIn™ I often used their comments to make improvements, but I paid the most attention when many students commented on and ExamView® the same material. I could write a “Top Ten” list of sections 0-495-60319-8 students thought should be revised, but instead I’ll just say This one-stop lecture and class preparation tool contains that student feedback resulted in numerous changes to ev- ready-to-use Microsoft® PowerPoint® slides written by ery chapter in the book. Because of these changes, this is the Terri Bonebright of De Pauw University, and allows you to most “student friendly” edition yet. assemble, edit, publish, and present custom lectures for your course. PowerLecture lets you bring together text- specific lecture outlines along with videos of your own ma- Improving Organization terials, culminating in a powerful, personalized, media- The organization of material within every chapter has been enhanced presentation. The CD-ROM also includes JoinIn™, evaluated with an eye toward improving clarity of presenta- an interactive tool that lets you pose book-specific ques- tion. A few examples: tions and display students’ answers seamlessly within the Microsoft® PowerPoint® slides of your own lecture, in con- Chapters 2–4: These chapters set the stage for the junction with the “clicker” hardware of your choice, as well rest of the book by introducing students to the ba- as the ExamView® assessment and tutorial system, which sic principles of vision and physiology. Responding guides you step by step through the process of creating to feedback from users of the seventh edition, I now tests. introduce basic physiological processes in Chapter 2. xxiv Preface  This means that topics such as sensory coding, neu- Regularities in the environment ral circuits, and receptive fields that were formerly in Will robot vision ever be as good as human vision? Chapters 3 and 4 are now introduced at the beginning Models of brain activity that can predict what a person of the book. Vision is introduced in Chapter 3, focus- is seeing ing on the retina, and higher-order visual processes are described in Chapter 4. This sequence of three Chapter 6: Visual Attention chapters now flows more smoothly than in the seventh Perception without attention (updated) edition. Attention in autism Chapter 5: Material on the physiology of object percep- tion, which was formerly in the middle of the chapter, Chapter 7: Taking Action has been moved to the end, allowing for an uninter- Cortical response to the intention to take action rupted discussion of behavioral approaches to under- Neuropsychology of affordances standing the perception of objects and scenes. Mirror neurons and predicting another person’s Chapter 14: Discussion of gate control theory is no intentions longer at the end of the section on pain, but is now Behavioral and physiological responses during naviga- introduced early in the section. We first consider what tion by London taxi drivers motivated Melzack and Wall to propose the theory by describing how pain perception was explained in the Neural prostheses: controlling movement with the early 1960s; then the theory is described, followed by a mind discussion of new research on cognitive influences on Chapter 8: Perceiving Motion pain perception. Aperture problem (updated) If you have used this book before, you will notice that Transcranial magnetic stimulation and biological the final chapter of the sixth edition, “Clinical Aspects of motion Vision and Hearing,” is no longer in the book. This chapter, which was eliminated in the seventh edition to make room Chapter 9: Perceiving Color for other material, such as a new chapter on visual attention, Why two types of cones are necessary for color vision described how vision and hearing can become impaired, (clarified) what happens during eye and ear examinations, and some of the medical procedures that have been used to deal with Information that opponent neurons add to the trichro- these problems. Some of this material has been included matic receptor response in this edition, but for a fuller treatment, go to the book’s Memory color (updated) website at www.cengage.com/psychology/goldstein for a reprint of that chapter. Chapter 10: Perceiving Depth and Size Relative disparity added to discussion of absolute disparity Adding New Content Depth information across species The updating of this edition is reflected in the inclusion of Is there a depth area in the brain? more than 100 new references, most to recent research. In addition, some earlier research has been added, and some Chapter 11: Sound, the Auditory System, descriptions from the seventh edition have been updated. and Pitch Perception Here are a few of these new additions. Ion flow and bending of inner hair cell cilia Chapter 2: Introduction to the Physiology of Perception Cochlear amplifier action of outer hair cells (updated) Sparse coding Conductive hearing loss, sensorineural hearing loss, presybcusis, and noise-induced hearing loss The mind–body problem Potential for hearing loss from listening to MP3 players Chapter 4: The Visual Cortex and Beyond “Pitch neurons” in the cortex that respond to funda- Information flow in the lateral geniculate nucleus mental frequency even if the fundamental is missing Chapter 5: Perceiving Objects and Scenes Chapter 12: Sound Localization and the Auditory Scene What is a scene? Cone of confusion Perceiving the gist of a scene Jeffress “coincidence detector” circuit for localization Perceiving objects in scenes (the effect of context on Broadly tuned ITD neurons and localization added to object perception) discussion of narrowly tuned neurons Preface xxv  Architectural acoustics expanded, including acoustics Laura Cordova for her relentless quest for photo in classrooms permissions. Chapter 13: Speech Perception Lisa Torri, my art editor, for continuing the tradition of working on my book, which started many editions Transitional probabilities as providing information ago, and for all the care and creativity that went into for speech segmentation making all of the illustrations happen. Dual-stream model of speech perception Mary Noel and Rita Jaramillo, senior content project Speech perception and action managers, who coordinated all of the elements of the book during production and made sure everything Chapter 14: Cutaneous Senses happened when it was supposed to so the book would The case of Ian Waterman, who lost his senses of touch get to the printer on time. and proprioception Vernon Boes, art guru, who directed the design for the Gate control theory placed in historical perspective book. Thanks, Vernon, for the therapeutic conversa- Brain activity in physically produced pain and pain tions, not to mention the great design and cover. induced by hypnosis Lisa Buckley for the elegant design and Irene Morris Chapter 15: The Chemical Senses for the striking cover. Glomeruli as information-collecting units (updated) Precision Graphics for the beautiful art renderings. Higher-level olfactory processing, including the per- Stephen Wurst, SUNY Oswego, for revising the In- ceptual organization of smell structor’s Manual and Test Bank, which he wrote for Piriform cortex and perceptual learning the previous edition. How the orbitofrontal cortex response to pleasantness In addition to the help I received from all of the above is affected by cognitive factors people on the editorial and production side, I also received Chapter 16: Perceptual Development a great deal of help from researchers and teachers. One of the things I have learned in my years of writing is that other Measurement of contrast sensitivity function (clarified) people’s advice is crucial. The field of perception is a broad one, and I rely heavily on the advice of experts in specific ar- eas to alert me to emerging new research and to check my Acknowledgments writing for accuracy. Equally important are all of the teach- ers of perception who rely on textbooks in their courses. It is a pleasure to acknowledge the following people who They have read groups of chapters (and in a few cases, the worked tirelessly to turn my manuscript into an actual whole book), with an eye to both accuracy of the material book! Without these people, this book would not exist, and I and pedagogy. I owe a great debt of thanks to this group of am grateful to all of them. reviewers for their advice about how to present the material Jeremy Judson, my developmental editor, for keeping to their students. The following is a list of those who pro- me on schedule, shepherding the book through the pro- vided advice about content and teachability for this edition duction process, and all those phone conversations. of the book. Anne Draus of Scratchgravel Production Services, for Christopher Brown taking care of the amazing number of details involved Arizona State University in turning my manuscript into a book in her usual Carol Colby efficient and professional way. University of Pittsburgh Peggy Tropp, for her expert and creative copy editing. John Culling Lauren Keyes for her attention to detail, for her tech- University of Cardiff nical expertise, and for being a pleasure to work with on the updating of the Virtual Labs. Stuart Derbyshire University of Birmingham Armira Rezec, Saddelback College, for obtaining new items for the Virtual Lab, and for revising the Virtual Diana Deutsch Lab manual. University of California, San Diego Trina Tom, for her work on the ancillaries, especially Laura Edelman the new Virtual Lab manual. Muhlenberg College xxvi Preface Jack Gallant Robert T. Weathersby University of California, Berkeley Eastern University Mel Goodale Shannon N. Whitten University of Western Ontario University of Central Florida Mark Hollins Donald Wilson University of North Carolina New York University Marcel Just Takashi Yamauchi Carnegie-Mellon University Texas A & M Kendrick Kay Thomas Yin University of California, Berkeley University of Wisconsin Jeremy Loebach William Yost Macalester College Arizona State University David McAlpine I also thank the following people who donated photographs University College, London and research records for illustrations that are new to this edition. Eriko Miyahara Moshe Bar California State University, Fullerton Harvard University Sam Musallam William Bosking University of Toronto University of Texas John Neuhoff Mary Bravo The College of Wooster Rutgers University Crystal Oberle Paul Breslin Texas State University Monell Chemical Senses Center Aude Oliva Beatriz Calvo-Merino Massachusetts Institute of Technology University College, London Andrew Parker Joseph Carroll University of Oxford University of Wisconsin Mary Peterson Stuart Derbyshire University of Arizona University of Birmingham David Pisoni John Donahue Indiana University Brown University and Cyberkinetics, Inc. Jan Schnupp Marc Ericson University of Oxford Wright-Patterson Air Force Base Bennett Schwartz Li Fei-Fei Florida International University Princeton University Alan Searleman David Furness St. Lawrence University Keele University Marc Sommer Gregory Hickok University of Pittsburgh University of California, Irvine Frank Tong Andrew Hollingworth Vanderbilt University University of Iowa Chris Urmson David Laing Carnegie-Mellon University University of New South Wales Preface xxvii  Eleanor Maguire John Donahue University College, London Brown University and Cyberkinetics, Inc. Pascal Mammassion Li Fei-Fei Université Paris Descartes Princeton University Edward Morrison Mary Hayhoe Auburn University University of Texas Claire Murphy San Diego State University Laurie Heller Brown University Aude Oliva Massachusetts Institute of Technology John Henderson Kevin Pelphrey University of Edinburgh Yale University George Hollich Andrea Pierno Purdue University University of Padua Scott Johnson Maryam Shahbake University of California, Los Angeles University of Western Sydney James Kalat Frank Tong North Carolina State University Vanderbilt University Stephen Neely Antonio Torralba Boys Town Hospital, Omaha Massachusetts Institute of Technology Chris Urmson Thomas Papathomas Tartan Racing, Carnegie-Mellon University Rutgers University Brian Wandell Phonak Corporation Stanford University Stafa, Switzerland Donald Wilson Andrea Pierno New York University University of Padua Finally, I thank all of the people and organizations who gen- Leila Reddy erously provided demonstrations and movies for the revised Massachusetts Institute of Technology Virtual Lab CD-ROM. Ronald Rensink ABC News University of British Columbia New York, New York Sensimetrics Corporation Edward Adelson Malden, Massachusetts Massachusetts Institute of Technology Michael Bach Ladan Shams University of Freiburg University of California, Los Angeles Colin Blakemore Nikolaus Troje Cambridge University Queen’s University Geoffrey Boynton Chris Urmson University of Washington Tartan Racing, Carnegie-Mellon University Diana Deutsch Peter Wenderoth University of California, San Diego Macquarie University xxviii Preface Sensation and Perception Image not available due to copyright restrictions Chapter Contents C H A P T E R 1 WHY READ THIS BOOK? THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS The Stimulus Electricity Experience and Action Knowledge Introduction to Perception DEMONSTRATION: Perceiving a Picture HOW TO APPROACH THE STUDY OF PERCEPTION MEASURING PERCEPTION Description Recognition METHOD: Recognition Detection METHOD: Determining the Absolute Threshold METHOD: Determining the Difference Threshold Magnitude Estimation METHOD: Magnitude Estimation Search Other Methods of Measurement SOMETHING TO CONSIDER: THRESHOLD MEASUREMENT CAN BE INFLUENCED BY HOW A PERSON CHOOSES TO RESPOND ❚ TEST YOURSELF 1.1 Think About It If You Want to Know More Key Terms Media Resources VL VIRTUAL LAB Image not available due to copyright restrictions VL The Virtual Lab icons direct you to specific animations and videos designed to help you visualize what you are reading about. The number beside each icon indicates the number of the clip you can access through your CD-ROM or your student website. 3 Some Questions We Will Consider: main problem first, and leave conscious experience until later. ❚ Why should you read this book? (p. 4) The “science project” above is what this book is about. ❚ How are your perceptions determined by processes that Our goal is to understand the human model, starting with you are unaware of? (p. 5) the detectors—the eyes, ears, skin receptors, and receptors ❚ What is the difference between perceiving something in the nose and mouth—and then moving on to the computer— and recognizing it? (p. 8) the brain. We want to understand how we sense things in ❚ How can we measure perception? (p. 12) the environment and interact with them. The paradox we face in searching for this understanding is that although we still don’t understand perception, perceiving is something that I magine that you have been given the following hypo- thetical science project. occurs almost effortlessly. In most situations, we simply open our eyes and see what is around us, or listen and hear sounds, Science project: without expending any particular effort. Design a device that can locate, describe, and identify all Because of the ease with which we perceive, many people objects in the environment, including their distance see perception as something that “just happens,” and don’t from the device and their relationships to each other. In see the feats achieved by our senses as complex or amaz- addition, make the device capable of traveling from one ing. “After all,” the skeptic might say, “for vision, a picture point to another, avoiding obstacles along the way. of the environment is focused on the back of my eye, and that picture provides all the information my brain needs to Extra credit: duplicate the environment in my consciousness.” But the Make the device capable of having conscious experience, idea that perception is not complex is exactly what misled such as what people experience when they look out at a computer scientists in the 1950s and 1960s to propose that scene. it would take only about a decade or so to create “perceiv- Warning: ing machines” that could negotiate the environment with This project, should you decide to accept it, is extremely humanlike ease. That prediction, made half a century ago, difficult. It has not yet been solved by the best computer has yet to come true, even though a computer defeated the scientists, even though they have access to the world’s world chess champion in 1997. From a computer’s point of most powerful computers. view, perceiving a scene is more difficult than playing world championship chess. Hint: In this chapter we will begin by introducing some ba- Humans and animals have solved the problems above sic principles to help us understand the complexities of in a particularly elegant way. They use (1) two spheri- perception. We will first consider a few practical reasons for cal sensors called “eyes,” which contain a light-sensitive studying perception, then examine how perception occurs chemical, to sense light; (2) two detectors on the sides in a sequence of steps, and fi nally consider how to measure of the head, which are fitted with tiny vibrating hairs perception. to sense pressure changes in the air; (3) small pressure detectors of various shapes imbedded under the skin to sense stimuli on the skin; and (4) two types of chemical detectors to detect gases that are inhaled and solids and Why Read This Book? liquids that are ingested.