Sensation and Perception PDF

Sensation and Perception PSY 104  Defining Sensation and Perception  Sensation  The detection of physical energy emitted or reflected by physical objects.  It occurs when energy in the external environment or the body stimulates receptors in the sense orga...

Sensation and Perception PSY 104  Defining Sensation and Perception  Sensation  The detection of physical energy emitted or reflected by physical objects.  It occurs when energy in the external environment or the body stimulates receptors in the sense organs.  Perception  The process by which the brain organizes and interprets sensory information. Sensation & Perception Processes  Gate-Control Theory of Pain  Experience of pain depends (in part) on whether the pain impulse gets past neurological “gate” in the spinal cord and thus reaches the brain.  Neuromatrix Theory of Pain  Theory that the matrix of neurons in the brain is capable of generating pain (and other sensations) in the absence of signals from sensory nerves.  The Environment Within  Kinesthesis  The sense of body position and movement of body parts; also called kinesthesia.  Equilibrium  The sense of balance.  Semicircular Canals  Sense organs in the inner ear, which contribute to equilibrium by responding to rotation of the head. Critical Periods  If infants miss out on experiences during a crucial period of time, perception will be impaired.  When adults who have been blind since birth have vision restored, they may not see well  Other senses such has hearing may be influenced similarly.  Psychological and Cultural Influences on Perception  We are more likely to perceive something when we need it.  What we believe can affect what we perceive.  Emotions, such as fear, can influence perceptions of sensory information.  Expectations based on our previous experiences influence how we perceive the world.  Perceptual Set  A habitual way of perceiving, based on expectations.  All are influenced by our culture.  Context Effects  The same physical stimulus can be interpreted differently  We use other cues in the situation to resolve ambiguities  Is this the letter B or the number 13? Cognitive Development  The Elements of Cognition  Mental representation –  Concepts, ideas, images, & principles  Concept  Mental category that groups objects, relations, activities, abstractions, or qualities having common properties.  A basic concept has a moderate number of instances and is easier to acquire.  A prototype is an especially representative example of a concept.  Proposition  A unit of meaning that is made up of concepts and expresses a single idea.  The Elements of Cognition  Cognitive Schema  An integrated mental network of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations concerning a particular topic or aspect of the world.  Mental Image  A mental representation that mirrors or resembles the thing it represents.  How Conscious is Thought?  Subconscious Processes  Mental processes occurring outside of conscious awareness but accessible to consciousness when necessary.  Nonconscious Processes  Mental processes occurring outside of and not available to conscious awareness.  Implicit learning occurs when you have:  acquired knowledge about something without being aware of how you did so, and without being able to state exactly what you have learned.  How Conscious is Thought?  Mindlessness  We may act, speak, and make decisions out of habit, without stopping to analyze what we are doing or why.  Keeps people from recognizing when a change in a situation requires a change in behaviour.  Mindless processing of information has obvious benefits, but can also lead to errors and mishaps.  Formal Reasoning: Algorithms and Logic  Deductive Reasoning  A tool of formal logic in which a conclusion necessarily follows from a set of observations or Inductive Reasoning propositions (premises). A tool of formal logic in which a conclusion probably follows from a set of observations or propositions or premises, but could be false. Informal Reasoning: Heuristics and Dialectical Thinking  Heuristic  A rule of thumb that suggests a course of action or guides problem solving but does not guarantee an optimal solution.  Dialectical Reasoning  A process in which opposing facts or ideas are weighed and compared, with a view to determining the best solution or resolving differences.  Reflective Judgment  Skills  The ability to question assumptions.  Evaluate and integrate evidence.  Relate that evidence to a theory or opinion.  Consider alternative interpretations.  Reach defendable conclusions.  Be able to reassess those conclusions in face of new information.  Developmental stages include prereflective, quasi-reflective, and reflective. Barriers to Reasoning Rationally  Exaggerating the Improbable  Availability Heuristic  The tendency to judge the probability of an event by how easy it is to think of examples or instances.  For example, in the wake of September 11, most people overestimated their odds of dying in a plane crash even though they continued to take higher risks by driving in their cars. Biases Due to Mental Sets  A tendency to solve problems using procedures that worked before on similar problems.  Mental sets make learning and problem solving more efficient.  For example, we look for patterns in events.  Not helpful when a problem calls for fresh insights or a new approach.  The Hindsight Bias  The tendency to overestimate one’s ability to have predicted an event once the outcome is known.  Also known as the “I knew it all along” phenomenon.  Common in political judgments, medical judgments, military decisions.  The Confirmation Bias  The tendency to look for or pay attention only to information that confirms one’s own beliefs.  Need for Cognitive Consistency  Cognitive Dissonance:  A state of tension that occurs when a person simultaneously holds two cognitions that are psychologically inconsistent, or  when a person’s belief is inconsistent with his or her behaviour.  Conditions which may reduce dissonance  When you need to justify a choice or decision you freely made.  When you need to justify behaviour that conflicts with your view of yourself.  When you need to justify the effort put into a decision or choice. Justification of Effort  The tendency of individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard for or suffered to attain.  A common form of dissonance reduction.  After listening to a boring group discussion, those who went through severe initiation to join, rated it most highly. (Aronson & Mills, 1959)  Defining Intelligence  Intelligence  An inferred characteristic of an individual, usually defined as the ability to profit from experience, acquire knowledge, think abstractly, act purposefully, or adapt to changes in the environment.  g factor  A general intellectual ability assumed by many theorists to underlie specific mental abilities and talents.  Psychometrics  The measurement of mental abilities, traits and processes.  The Invention of IQ tests  Binet believed we should measure a child’s mental age.  Binet and Simon developed a test which measured memory, vocabulary, and perceptual discrimination.  Mental age was divided by chronological age and multiplied by 100 to get a IQ or intelligent quotient score.  Now IQ scores are derived from norms provided for standardized intelligence tests. An Illustration of Stereotype Threat  Sternberg's Triarchic Theory  Componential - a.k.a. “Analytic”  Comparing, analyzing, and evaluating.  This type of processes correlates best with IQ.  Experiential - a.k.a. “Creative”  Inventing or designing solutions to new problems.  Transfer skills to new situations.  Contextual - a.k.a. “Practical”  Using (i.e., applying) the things you know in everyday contexts.  Domains of Intelligence  Emotional intelligence  The ability to:  identify your own and other people’s emotions accurately,  express your emotions clearly, and  regulate emotions in yourself and others.  Appears to be biologically based (Damasio, 1994)  Motivation and intellectual success  Comparing the 100 most successful men with 100 least successful, researchers found that motivation, not IQ made the difference.  Motivation to work hard at intellectual tasks differs as a function of culture.  North American children are as knowledgeable as Asian children on general skills.