Geographical Variations of English PDF

24.09.2024 **Geographical variations of English** *English language* national lang. of UK, USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand official or semi-official lang. of communication in, e.g. Malta, Gibraltar, Ghana, Nigeria, South Africa, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Israel, Sudan, Kenya, Singapor...

24.09.2024 **Geographical variations of English** *English language* national lang. of UK, USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand official or semi-official lang. of communication in, e.g. Malta, Gibraltar, Ghana, Nigeria, South Africa, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Israel, Sudan, Kenya, Singapore, Jamaica, The Bahamas\... regional differences, esp. in pronunciation; vocabulary, grammar, e.g.: - *ask* in RP /ˈɑːsk/, in G.A. (General American) /ˈæsk/ - BrE: *railway*, AmE: *railroad* - BrE: *be in hospital, go to university*; AmE: *be in the hospital, to/at a university* geographical variations of English - Standard English, national standards (BrE, AmE), regional variants, local dialects *Standard English and geographical varieties* most words -- in any variety of English, some -- limited to particular parts of the English-speaking world **variety of English** -- in reference to orthography, word usage, grammatical forms -- that cuts across regional boundaries and embraces what is common in each -- common core of all varieties -- **Standard English** (General English, mainstream English) -- has a widely accepted codified grammar, vocabulary \... '*the variety of English language which is normally employed in writing and normally spoken by educated speakers of the language'* includes formal, informal variations of English, though uniformity is most noticeable in neutral, more formal styles of written English **geographical varieties** of English (national standards) (Quirk et al., 1972): ***British English, American English*** ***Americanism, Briticism*** -- word, phrase, speech sound, grammatical form of English spoken in the US, UK *Geographical variations of English* **British lang**. -- influenced the character of the lang. in Australia, New Zealand, India, Pakistan, Africa, the West Indies Canada -- in some respects the variety follows BrE, but more and more influenced by AmE influence of AmE -- very strong all over the English-speaking world if vocabulary and grammar strictly limited to the usage in some other region than GB, USA -- ***Australian, New Zealand, West Indian (Caribbean), South African English (also West African English)***, Indian and Pakistani English ***Scottish, Irish*** (Hiberno-English, Anglo-Irish), ***Welsh English*** -- less distinct, less institutionalised (Quirk et al., 1972) ***Pidgin English*** -- auxiliary lang., used among people who do not have a common lang.; simplified form of English (vocab., grammar) mixed with local language(s); if used as a first/principal lang. in the community where it is spoken -- ***creole*** main groups of English-based pidgins and creoles: Atlantic varieties (West Indies, West Africa), Pacific varieties (South-east Asia, South Sea islands) *Lexical differences in individual geographical varieties* **Australian English** - *crook* (bad, unpleasant), *arvo* (afternoon), *dinkum* (authentic, genuine; adv. truly, honestly), *bushed* (lost), *to waddy* (to attack with a club/stick), *bowyang* (a trouser strap), *paddock* (field), *tube* (a tin of beer), *Pommy* (an English person), *a billabong* (pond), *tucker* (food), *cobber* (mate), *chook*(ie) (chicken), a *mob* (of sheep, Eng.: herd) Canadian English - *pogey* (dole), *bush pilot, bush plane, clumper* (a small iceberg), *habitant* (a French Canadian), *tuque* (a cap), *shack* (hut) Jamaican English (creole) - *I and I* (we, you, I), *foot* (leg, foot), *go small-small* (go very slow), *in guo* (he is going), *in bin guo* (he went) Indian and Pakistani English - *pukka/pukha* (very good), *rickshaw, sari, jawan* (soldier), *tiffin* (lunch) *Lexical differences in individual geographical varieties* **Welsh English** - *del* (a term of endearment), *llymru* (porridge dish), *rise the drink* (buy), *tidy* (good, nice, e.g. a t. car), *delight* (interest, e.g. a d. in language) **Scottish English** -- uses a no. of special dialect words, e.g. - *eye* (yes), *dram* (drink), *lass/lassie* (girl, young woman) - distinguished by a very specific accent; in remote areas even stronger (The Shetland Isles) **Irish English** - *colleen* (girl, young woman), *begorra* (by God), *brogue* (broad accent), *above* (North), *below* (South), *back* (West), *over* (East), *bold* (naughty), *gunder* (shout), *wither* (hesitate) **Northern Irish** -- is a very strong accent, but also typical vocab., with typical phrases, e.g. - *are ya away*? (are you leaving?), *afeard* (scared), *ah* (me), *bladdered* (drunk), *chieppie* (fish and chips shop), *fillum* (movie) 01.10.2024 **Compounds** Basic classification **endocentric** compounds -- the determinant and the determinatum, e.g.: - *ashtray, mousetrap, stepladder* **exocentric** compounds -- the determinatum is not expressed, e.g.: - *hangover, killjoy, ladybird* **dvandva** compounds -- two separate entities form one unit, e.g.: - *Coca-Cola, Marks and Spencer, cash and carry* **bahuvrihi** -- person, animal, thing is metonymically named after some striking feature, e.g.: - *black-shirt, skinhead, white collar* **rhyme-motivated**, e.g.: - *hurry-scurry, helter-skelter, teeny-weeny* **ablaut** (vowel change) **motivated**, e.g.: - *shilly-shally, tip-top, mish-mash* **pseudo-compounds** -- not compounds at all; created by folk etymology, e.g.: - *hamburger, mayday* Other types of classification 1. according to the **type of composition** composition **without connecting element**, e.g.: *heartache, paperback* composition **with a vowel or a consonant**, e.g.: *sportsman, nowadays* composition **with preposition or conjunction stems**, e.g.: *son-in-law, salt-and-pepper* 2. according to the **word-class** compound **nouns**: a) **noun + noun**, b) based on **phrasal verbs**, c) **adjective + noun**, e.g.: *keyboard, toothpaste, take-over, outlet, checkout, cutback, turnover, outlook, feedback, set-up, blackboard, full moon* compound **adjectives** -- usu. written **with a hyphen**, e.g.: *brand-new, sun-tanned, easy-going, built-up, well-off, cast-off, worn-out, manmade, pay-per-view, carboard* compound **verbs** -- most are **converted from nouns** or formed by **back-formation**, e.g.: *double-book, whitewash, honeymoon, nickname, proof-read, blackmail, hitchhike, hi-jack, baby-sit* 3. based on **spelling** **closed** compounds -- created by two words joined close together, e.g.: *basketball, sunflower, sometimes* **open** compounds -- spelled with a space between the words; read together; create a new meaning, e.g.: *middle class, real estate* **hyphenated** compounds -- parts are connected by a hyphen, e.g.: *well-being, half-sister, mother-in-law* 08.10.2024 **Paremiological expressions and specific non-paremological expressions** **Paremiological expressions** socio-cultural value; studied within folklore studies, ethnography, etc. '**proverbs'** and '**sayings'** -- meaning & use frequently overlap '**proverb'** -- in more general sense -- both types of expressions or used interchangeably with the term '**saying'** '**saying'** -- in a broader sense -- both types; frequently not as a technical term borderline -- not always very clear '**adage', 'saw', 'maxim', 'truism', 'platitude', 'aphorism'**, etc. -- meanings frequently overlap **proverb** -- short statement, usu. known by many people for a long time, gives advice or expresses some common truth, e.g.: *The appetite, says the proverb, grows with eating*. **saying** -- well-known wise statement, often has a meaning that is different from the simple meanings of the words it contains, e.g.: *As the saying goes, 'Don't count your chickens before they're hatched.'* **adage** -- wise saying or proverb, e.g.: *Is there any empirical truth to the folk adage that children will 'grow out of it'?* **saw** -- short sentence that states sth that is generally thought to be true, or that gives useful advice, e.g.: *An old saw says a hospital can be a dangerous place for a healthy person.* **maxim** -- short statement of a general truth, principle, or rule for behaviour, e.g.: *I believe in the maxim 'if it ain't broke, don't fix it'.* **truism** -- statement that is so obvious or said so often that its truth is not questioned, e.g.: *It's a truism that preventing disease is much better than curing it*. **platitude** -- remark or statement that may be true but is boring, been repeated so often that it is meaningless, e.g.: *They nodded at every platitude about making sacrifices today for a better tomorrow.* **aphorism** -- short clever saying intended to express a general truth, e.g.: *Experience is the name everyone gives to their mistakes*. **quotation** -- phrase or short piece of writing taken from a longer work of literature, poetry, etc. or what someone else has said, e.g.: The best way to predict your future is to create it. (A. Lincoln); On matters of style, swim with the current, on matters of principle, stand like a rock. **Specific non-paremiological expressions** **phrasal verb** -- phrase that consists of a verb with a prep./adv. or both, the meaning of which is different from..., e.g.: *pay for, work out, make up for* **simile** -- expression comparing one thing with another, always with words **as** or **like**, e.g.: *She walks in beauty, like the night*\... (Byron's poem), (*as) right as rain* **binomial** -- two words separated by a conjunction that almost always appear in the same order, e.g.: *bread and butter, cut and dried* **trinomial** -- three words commonly grouped as one set phrase, e.g. : *hook, line and sinker; beg, borrow and steal* **social formulae** -- expressions used a lot in conversational exchanges with many different purposes, e.g.: *How are you?, How are things?, Long time no see*. **Task** Cesta do pekla je vydlaždena dobrými skutkami -- The road to the hell is paved with good intensions -- George Bernand Shaw Cest je cieľ -- It's not the destination, it's the journey. -- Ralph Waldo Emerson Cez ťažkosti k hviezdam -- Through adversity to the stars -- came from Latin going back 2000 years as „per aspera ad astra" -- **add meanings.** 15.10.2024 **Phraseological units (phrasemes, idioms)** **Phraseology, phrase, phraseological unit, idiom** **phraseology** -- way that words and phrases are chosen, used in a particular language/subject **phrase** a\) group of words that together have a particular meaning, b) group of words without a finite verb, esp. when used to form part of a sentence, e.g.: *He said the President was -- what was the phrase he used? -- 'trigger-happy'; along the road, a bottle of milk* **phraseology** - specific linguistic field, branch of lexicology; b) set of phraseological units **phraseological unit** a\) non-motivated word-groups that cannot be freely made up in speech but are readymade units b\) stable word-group characterized by a completely/partially transferred meaning **idiom** -- has a special meaning of its own, whatever variations it undergoes, it expresses the same meaning with the same imagery Basic characteristic features of idioms **phraseological units**: polylexicality, high frequency, familiarity, fixedness, idiomaticity **idioms** (phrasemes, phraseological units): a. institutionalisation -- its conventional character b. multi-word character -- very short; a complex structure, e.g.: *at all, at last, if a day, cut one's coat according to one's cloth, you scratch my back and I'll scratch yours* c. fixedness -- relatively fixed/stable combinations of words: e.g.: *under the weather, at the eleventh hour* d. non-literal character, but fully/partially figurative and unique: *a dark horse* vs. 'a horse of a dark colour' e. functional unity Classification of phraseological units Vinogradov (1977; semantic principle) Smirnitsky (I. functional principle; II. combination of structural and semantic constituent Kunin (1970; pragmatic, simplified) Mlacek (1977; according to word classes) Ďurčo (2007; comprehensive overview of the structural types of Slovak phraseological units) Categorization of idioms from the point of view of their **construction:** **phrasal idioms** -- structure of a phrase of diff. types: \- **syntagmatic idioms** -- structure of syntagma with the subgroups: a\) **verbal idioms** -- with verbal syntagmatic structure, e.g. *open sb' eyes, sleep like a top, give sb the boot, put up, come clean* b\) **non-verbal idioms** (nominal, adjectival, adverbial idioms), e.g. *a square peg in a round hole, tooth and nail, (as) white as a sheet* \- **minimal idioms**, e.g. *after all, to boot, by heart, like hell* \- **sentence idioms**, e.g. *talk of devil and he'll soon appear, don't count your chickens before they are hatched* some -- **mixed structure**, their variants may belong to, e.g.: *at last* (minimal) -- *at long last* (verbless); *have one's heart in one's mouth* (verbal) -- *sb's heart is in his mouth* (sentence) from the point of view of their **fixedness/stability**: - completely **fixed** (**unchangeable**, frozen) idioms, e.g. *once in a blue moon, of course* - **changeable idioms** or idioms with variants, e.g. *the last straw -- the final straw, not harm/hurt a fly, clutch/catch at straws* Types of institutionalized variations in some idioms -- possibilities of certain **internal variations** **variations** -- not arbitrary but limited; extent -- unpredictable, cannot be applied to other idioms, e.g. - *build castles* (\*not palaces) *in Spain* (\*not France); *build castles in the air* - *(he) kicked the bucket* (\*not he is kicking \...) **lexical variants** -- variations in lexical items, e.g. *cross sb's palm -- cross sb's...; sell like hot cakes -- \... like hot cakes* **grammatical variants** -- changes in morphology, syntax, e.g. - *have been in the wars -- had been in the wars* (\*not future or conditional ) - *the bitter bit -- the bitter bitten, skin and bones -- bones and skin* some variants -- **lexical** and **grammatical** changes, e.g. - *a/the skeleton in the cupboard -- a/the family skeleton* - *there is no smoke without fire -- where there's smoke, there's fire* some idioms -- only in pl., in sg., in both, e.g. *airs and graces, red tape, white lie/white lies* **orthographic/spelling variants** -- changes in writing/spelling; usu. connected with the process of fixedness, e.g. - *pay lip service, pay lip-service, pay lipservice* - *to a tee, to a T* - *run amok, run amuck* **quantitative variants** -- with diff. optional parts, e.g. *\... -- a hard nut to crack, make hay -- \..., now and then -- \...* some of the variations -- obligatory; others -- optional, e.g. *not lift/raise a finger/hand; foul one's nest, foul one's (own) nest* **complex variants** -- variability includes more than one type, e.g. - *one's eye or eyes peeled or skinned, give or lend a (helping) hand* - *cut a (fine, etc.) figure: cut a (sad) figure, cut a (poor) figure, cut a (ridiculous) figure* **geographical variants** -- previously mentioned changes; preferred in one part/variety of the English-speaking world, e.g. - *on second thoughts* (BrE), *on second thought* (AmE) - *be at a loose end* (BrE), *be at loose ends* (AmE) 22.10.2024 **Semantic and formal relations between idioms** **Semantic relations and grouping** **semantically**, grouped into **idiomatic semantic fields** -- sets of semantically related idioms, connected with the same general concept (e.g. power, fear, etc.) e.g.: - *call the tune, have sb in the palm of one's hand, keep a tight reign* - *get cold feet, have one's heart in one's mouth, in a cold sweat* **synonymous idioms** -- with the same or very close denotative meaning, e.g.: *be rolling in it -- have money to burn, an eye for an eye -- tit for tat* set of expressions -- independent synonymous idioms, not variants, in spite of common words, they have different imagery -- symbols, e.g.: *a big wheel, a big gun, a big noise, a big shot* **antonymous idioms** -- having the opposite meaning, e.g.: *swim with the tide -- swim against the tide, absence makes the heart grow fonder -- out of sight, out of mind* **Formal relations and grouping** **formally**, grouped according to similarities of their forms of expressions, the use of the same formal component or identicalness of the structure identity of expressions based on the form but different meaning, origin, motivation -- **homonymy**, e.g.: *on the up and up* (BrE), *on the up and up* (AmE) idiomatic **paronyms** -- 'idiomatic false friends' -- two idioms similar in their form but different in their meaning, e.g.: *lose heart -- lose one's heart, lose one's nerve -- lose one's nerves* idiomatic **clusters** (idiomatic families) -- containing one common lexical component (e.g. black, hand, etc.), e.g.: - give sb a black eye, the black sheep, black mark - lift/raise one's hand (against), lend a hand, hand over fist similar groups of idioms with the same, nearly the same or completely different meaning -- idiomatic **frames** - in addition to some common lexical components, they show an identical grammatical structure, e.g.: - V + the + N, e.g.: *hit the bottle, hit the road, hit the jackpot* - in + a + N, e.g.: in a nutshell, in a rut, in a jiffy **29.10.2024** **Stylistic classification of idioms** **Stylistic and emotional restrictions** in relation to **formality** (situation, style), most idioms used: **informal** contexts or **very informal** situations, e.g.: - *have a go at, feel like a million dollars* - *stop/shut one's mouth, be full of shit/crap* (vulg., sl.) - usage of these expressions incl. idioms with F-word -- **vulgar (taboo** idioms), e.g. *not give/care a fuck* (about sb/sth) smaller no. of idioms in **formal** contexts, such as 'serious', official writings, e.g.: - *null and void, act and deed* - degree of formality differ also in individual variants of the same idiom, e.g. *beat one's breast (more formal), beat one's chest* **Stylistic connotations of idioms in dictionaries** **informal** idioms, e.g.: *be my guest, a basket case, get the chop, (be) full of beans, like mad, not give a hoot; no way, José!; you are telling me, bad hair day* **very informal** idioms (sl., vulg.), e.g.: *give sb a finger, get stuffed, be on the piss, not give a monkey's, take a leak, be scared shitless, take the piss (out of sth/sb)* **formal** idioms, e.g.: *make so bold, to no avail, in concert (with), how do you do, fall prey to sb/sth, a man of the cloth* **literary** idioms, e.g.: *plough a lonely furrow, gird up one's loins, the land of milk and honey, cut the Gordian knot* **old-fashioned** idioms, e.g.: *not on your Nelly, stick to one's last, sb's glad rags, give up the ghost, sb's salad days* **foreign** idioms, e.g.: *enfant terrible, persona non grata, lingua franca, in flagrante, mea culpa* **Emotionally colored idioms in dictionaries** different attitudes and degrees of emotions (expressive connotations, positive/negative connotations): - **derogatory** idioms, e.g.: *a fat cat, a snake (in the grass), mutton dressed (up) as lamb, wet behind the ears, a bag lady, an old maid, with one's nose in the air, old woman* - **offensive or very offensive** idioms (sl., vulg.), e.g.: *be up shit creek, go apeshit, son of a bitch, what the fuck, shove/stick sth up your arse/ass* - **humorous** idioms, e.g.: *have a bun in the oven, what's your poison?, Pardon my French, as snug as a bug in a rug, be no spring chicken, (go to) powder one's nose* - **ironic** idioms, e.g*.: a pretty/fine kettle of fish, big deal, clear as mud, God's gift to sb, pigs might fly, need sth like a hole in the head* - **euphemistic** idioms, e.g.: *be economical with the truth, spend a penny, be in the family way, not all there, sweet Fanny Adams* **Stylistic exploitation** idioms quite often used in a form diff. from their established, institutionalised forms and variants in mass media or fiction, esp. in advertising; satiric, humoristic works changes as the result of stylistic manipulation of lexical components manipulation based on playing with double meanings: literal meaning of individual words, figurative meaning of the whole, and the context in which they are used, e.g.: 'How much do you trust this source of yours, Alex? It sounds as though somebody is *leading you down a twisted path'* (R. Handberg) --... *the garden path* changing the established expressions by adding/replacing words, changing WO, cutting off or paraphrasing some parts of the original idiom, e.g.: 'You can't make a *Hamlet* without breaking *egos*.' (McDonald) -- you can't make... **Non-institutionalized variations of idioms** stylistic deformation, manipulation or innovation of different types and degrees: **addition** -- insertion of 1/\> new elements, frequently a modifier or attributive additions, e.g.: 'I even believe that some day we two outriders... having not *been born with a silver **espionage** spoon in our mouth* like Harry, may own two pieces of the Agency.'; That way they could *go through the **frozen** motions* of being a family. **substitution** -- replacement of 1/\> components, while structure of the original idiom remains the same, e.g.: She suddenly felt insignificant... and that being *a wolf in **spinster's** clothing.*; *you can take/lead a horse to water, but you can't make him drink*:; You can take *your son to college*, but you can't make him *think*.; *never put off till tomorrow what you can do today*:; Never put off till tomorrow *the fun* you can *have* today **separation** -- splitting of idioms into parts within the same/within more sentences, e.g.: - back to square one: 'They had been told to go *back* to the beginning, and that's exactly where they were. *Square one*.' - *don't wash your dirty linen in public*: That's *our dirty linen*. We won't *wash it in public*. - (*as) quick as lightning*: 'Is my tongue *quick*?' '*As lightning*,' said Inge. **deletion** -- cutting off/omission of a certain no. of lexical components, reduction (shortening) of some part, e.g.: - *don't/never look a gift horse in the mouth*: It's a little house in the woods... and he asked me if I wanted it. I said sure. *Never look a gift horse*, right? - *cross the bridge when you come to it*: Try not *cross the bridges* -- you don't know what's going to happen. shortening of idioms → their **transformation**/even their **complete disintegration** deletion resulted in transformation of verbal idioms into noun phrases, e.g.: - *turn (over) a new leaf*: Ah, but today is the first of your *new leaf*. You're going to be a normal medical student. - *be tied to his/her mother's apron strings*: He was also a great too mature. *The apron strings* had long been cut. **blending** -- combination of two idioms, e.g.: - *out of the frying pan into the fire + it's no use crying over spilt milk*: *Out of the frying pan into the split milk*. - *have sth up one's sleeve + sb's bag of tricks*: I suggest, if you *have* a dirty little *bag of tricks up to your sleeve*, you just forget about them. **complete disintegration** -- decomposition (destruction) of the whole idiom and its structure, when only some remaining components of the idiom used as allusion, e.g.: - *put the cart before the horse*: You're getting *the cart* and *horse* all mixed up. - *there's many a slip between the cup and the lips*: 'You've heard about *cups and lips*, and *slips*.' extreme example -- use of idioms, e.g. - *have an albatross around one's neck and a penny for your thoughts*, where only one word (a key word) remains: 'For it is my special *albatross* to be related to the guy that built Barrett Hall.' ; 'Well, Vic! *Penny*!' 'I was thinking of Australia.' **multiple variations of idioms** -- occurrence of \> 1 change, e.g.: - *in two shakes of a lamb's tail*: 'I'll be back in a *couple* of shakes...'; '... in two *flicks* of a *dead* lamb's tail.' (substitution and addition) - *a Jack of all trades, but master of none*: 'Tinker, a Jack of all trades but a *true* master of *one*.' (The Daily Mail) - *have one foot in a grave*: 'John Major has *both feet* in *the political* grave.' 05.11.2024 **Functional and geographical classification of idioms** Functions of idioms point of view of the **function of idioms** -- idioms with a **nominative** function -- express concepts and name objects, states, processes, actions, qualities, etc.; structure of a phrase, e.g.: *a white elephant, pull sb's leg, play second fiddle, as bright as a button, body and soul* a **communicative** function -- describe situations and express independent statements; structure of a sentence, e.g. *the best things in life are free, the coast is clear* **nominative and communicative** functions; a mixed, limited variable structure, e.g. *break the ice -- the ice is broken, lead sb by the nose -- sb is led by the nose* **without** any **distinctive nominative and communicative function**; modal, interjectional idioms, idioms with a cohesive function, e.g. *like hell, what on earth, on the other hand* within the group of idioms with a nominative function, idioms equivalent to **single words**, e.g. *of course -- certainly, make up one's mind --..., in the family way -- \...* may also correspond to **non-idiomatic phrases**; may be correlated with approximate description, e.g. *a big fish --..., as red as a turkey cock --..., cross sb's path --... have green fingers -- \...* nominative idioms correlate with word classes; **idiomatic or phraseological classes** -- nominal, verbal, adjectival and adverbial idioms, e.g. *a cry baby, (a/Dr) Jekyll and (Mr) Hyde, a raving beauty; smell a rat, blow the gaff, show one's teeth; prim and proper, as right as rain, more than welcome; first and last, heart and soul, on the spur of the moment* - their function -- not completely identical with that of single words; their meaning includes a higher degree of expressiveness, evaluation **pragmatic** point of view and **discourse**: **ideational** idioms -- expressing actions, events, situations, people, attitudes, emotions, etc., e.g. *red herring, bury the hatchet, as white as a sheet* **interpersonal** idioms -- expressing greetings, agreement, rejections, etc., e.g. *so long, never mind, you're telling me* **relational** idioms -- ensuring cohesion, e.g. *in addition to, last but not least, by the way* **pragmatic** point of view and **discourse**: **informational** idioms -- conveying info of diff. kind, e.g. *in the red, one's kith and kin* **evaluative** idioms -- speaker's attitude to the situation, e.g. *work wonders, a different kettle of fish, wash one's hands of sth* **situational** idioms -- expressing conventions, clauses, exclamation, relating to extra linguistic context, e.g. *wall have ears, talk of the devil, long time no see* **modalizing** idioms -- expressing modality, truth values, advice, request, e.g. *more or less, to all extents and purposes, in effect* **organizational** idioms -- organising the text, signalling discourse structure, e.g. *all in all, let alone, in other words* Geographical variations of idioms British and American idioms - **identical** idioms, e.g. *like a fish out of water, keep an eye on sb/sth, the lion's share* - **different** idioms -- AmE, BrE - **partially different** idioms -- orthographic/spelling variants, grammatical variants, lexical variants Australian English - includes both BrE, AmE idioms, and its own typical idioms, e.g. *like a shag on a rock, come the raw prawn* - *He nodded his [head].* - *He sat at the [head] of the table.* - *She is the [head] of the English department.* - *the [head] of a nail* - equally representative, typical or which meaning can be clear in isolation -- **dominant meaning**, e.g.: *hand* -- part of the body - clear only in certain contexts -- **minor meaning**, e.g.: *[hand] of a clock, farm [hand]* - change in the semantic structure of the word (new meanings added, some old meanings disappearing) - may also arise from homonymy - *thick line/ice (\...), thick forest, thick porridge, thick smoke (\...)* - *take a book/pen (\...), take a bus/train/tram (\...)* - **make** sb do sth, e.g. *He made her laugh.* - make + adj. + noun, e.g. *She will make a good wife.* - **have** + past participle of a verb, e.g. *have one's hair cut, have the clothes cleaned* - *He is there.* - *A: Give me the key. B: Never mind, play it in the key of B-flat major.* - *His speech was all in the same key.* **19.11.2024** **Current trends in word-formation processes** **Compounding** most productive word-formation process most productive type -- compound nouns n + n, adj + n, v + n, e.g. *birthing room, suicide belt, physical distancing* **Affixation** most productive process -- **suffixation** most productive suffixes: *-ing, -er, -y, -ly, -ed, e.g. futzing, frontliner, mouthie* (colloquial) **prefixation** most productive prefixes: *de-, a-, self-, co*-, e.g. *deprioritize, amelodic, self-isolated, self-quarantine, comorbidity* Sources of new words 6 words from 2 different languages, e.g. farmacia, (Spanish, Italian) most important sources in 2020 Latin -- 20 words, e.g. metallous; nowadays -- dead, obsolete, rare French -- 15 concepts, 5 related to gastronomy: macaron, perlage Yiddish -- 10 terms, e.g. farbrengen Birthing room -- a room in a hospital or other medical facility which is equipped for labor and childbirth and is designed to provide a more relaxed, non-clinical Suicide belt -- a belt fitted with explosive that are connected to a detonator, as worn by a suicide bomber. Physical distancing -- the action or practice of maintaining a certain physical distance from, or limiting physical contact with, another person or people. Futzing -- to waste time, idle or busy oneself aimlessly Frontliner -- an essential worker whose job depends on in-person interactions and may involve some risk Mouthie -- excessively talkative Deprioritize -- to treat something as being of the lowest importance Amelodic -- not relating to, containing Self-isolated -- the act of isolating or separating oneself or itself from others Self-quarantine -- to refrain from any contact with other individuals for a period of time 26.11.2024 **Vocabulary and the Internet** Take a joke -- note see the joke -- 2 idioms which are false friends Hot at something -- hot on somebody/something A mix blessing -- a blessing in these guys Behind somebody's back -- go behind somebody's back Low profile -- high profile We have to prepare a presentation (5 slides) and show about changes of vocabulary. How did the Internet change the vocabulary? 03.12.2024 The complication of dictionaries 1 video -- the Oxford advanced learner's dictionary, story of a young man Albert Sydney Hornby, who taught English in Japan, he noticed that English was challenging for his students to speak and comprehend. In 1933, he started gatherting notes from magazines and creating a dictionary explaining words in way that was easy to understand. In 1949, an editor saw an advertisement about his dictionary, and albert attempted to send a copy to London. However, the war made it difficult, and 2 attempts failed. A Japanese publisher expressed interest in printing a dictionary, but due to wartime shortages, only enough paper for 50 million pages was available. In 1948, the 1^st^ edition was published, and he continued teaching, and the dictionary became one of the best resources for non-native learners of English. 2 video -- the collins dictionary revealed that 85% of everyday language consists of just 3000 words. Dictionary is written in simple and clear English, in 1979, it introduces both an advanced learner's dictionary and one for intermediate learners. 3 video -- the cobuild project, led by linguist Johm Sinclair, focused on creating a comprehensive language database.