B. Ed. Spl. Ed (M. R. / H. I. / V. I)- ODL Programme PDF

 B. Ed. Spl. Ed (M. R. / H. I. / V. I)- ODL Programme AREA - A A-2 : CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION A COLLABORATIVE PROGRAMME OF NETAJI SUBHAS OPEN UNIVERSITY AND REHABILITATION COUNCIL OF INDIA 1 ...

 B. Ed. Spl. Ed (M. R. / H. I. / V. I)- ODL Programme AREA - A A-2 : CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION A COLLABORATIVE PROGRAMME OF NETAJI SUBHAS OPEN UNIVERSITY AND REHABILITATION COUNCIL OF INDIA 1  AREA - A CORE COURSE COURSE CODE - A2 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION Chairman Prof. Subha Sankar Sarkar, Vice Chancellor, Netaji Subhas Open University, Kolkata Convener Prof. Atindranath Dey, Director, School of Education, Netaji Subhas Open University, Kolkata Course Writers Sub Unit - 1 Dr. Baishali Basu Sub Unit - 2 Dr. Rajiva Lochon Mahapatra Sub Unit - 3 Dr. Rajiva Lochon Mahapatra & Dr. Chitralekha Mehera Sub Unit - 4 Dr. Jonaki Bhattacharya Sub Unit - 5 Dr. Papiya Upadhyay Editor Prof. Dulal Mukhopadhyay Processing General and Format Editing Dr. Papiya Upadhyay & Mrs. Antara Choudhury In-house Processing In-charge Ms. Swapna Deb & Mr. Samir Chakrabarti The Self Instructional Material (SIM) is prepared in conformity with the B.Ed.Spl. Edu.(MR/ HI/VI) - ODL Programme as prepared and circulated by the Rehabilitation Council of India, New Delhi and adopted by NSOU on and from the 2015-2017 academic session. © All rights reserved. No part of this work can be reproduced in any form without the written permission from the NSOU authorities. Professor (Dr.) Debesh Roy Registrar, NSOU 2  Netaji Subhas Open University From the Vice-Chancellor's Desk Dear Students, from this Academic Session (2015-17) the Curriculum and Course Structure of B. Ed.- Special Education have been thoroughly revised as per the stipulations which featured in the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) between the Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI) and the National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE). The newly designed course structure and syllabus is comprehensive and futuristic has, therefore, been contextualized and adopted by NSOU from the present academic session, following the directives of the aforesaid national statutory authorities. Consequent upon the introduction of new syllabus the revision of Self Instructional Material (SIM) becomes imperative. The new syllabus was circulated by RCI for introduction in the month of June, 2015 while the new session begins in the month of July. So the difficulties of preparing the SIMs within such a short time can easily be understood. However, the School of Education of NSOU took up the challenge and put the best minds together in preparing SIM without compromising the standard and quality of such an academic package. It required many rigorous steps before printing and circulation of the entire academic package to our dear learners. Every intervening step was meticulously and methodically followed for ensuring quality in such a time bound manner. The SIMs are prepared by eminent subject experts and edited by the senior members of the faculty specializing in the discipline concerned. Printing of the SIMs has been done with utmost care and attention. Students are the primary beneficiaries of these materials so developed. Therefore, you must go through the contents seriously and take your queries, if any, to the Counselors during Personal Contact Programs (PCPs) for clarifications. In comparison to F2F mode, the onus is on the learners in the ODL mode. So please change your mind accordingly and shrug off your old mindset of teacher dependence and spoon feeding habits immediately. 3  I would further urge you to go for other Open Educational Resources (OERs) - available on websites, for better understanding and gaining comprehensive mastery over the subject. From this year NSOU is also providing ICT enabled support services to the students enrolled under this University. So, in addition to the printed SIMs, the e-contents are also provided to the students to facilitate the usage and ensure more flexibility at the user end. The other ICT based support systems will be there for the benefit of the learners. So please make the most of it and do your best in the examinations. However, any suggestion or constructive criticism regarding the SIMs and its improvement is welcome. 1 must acknowledge the contribution of all the content writers, editors and background minds at the SoE, NSOU for their respective efforts, expertise and hard work in producing the SIMs within a very short time. Professor (Dr.) Subha Sankar Sarkar Vice-Chancellor, NSOU 4  B. Ed. Spl. Ed (M. R. / H. I. / V. I)- ODL Programme AREA - A A-2 : CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION 5  First Edition : December, 2015 Printed in accordance with the regulations and financial assistance of the DEB-UGC, Government of India 6  AREA - A Netaji Subhas Open A-2 : CONTEMPORARY University INDIA AND EDUCATION A-2 ❐ Contemporary India and Education UNIT - 1 : PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION 9-100 UNIT - 2 : UNDERSTANDING DIVERSITY 101-149 UNIT - 3 : CONTEMPORARY ISSUES AND CONCERNS 150-214 UNTI - 4 : EDUCATION COMMISSIONS AND POLICY 215-270 UNIT - 5 : ISSUES & TRENDS IN EDUCATION 271-338 7 8 Unit - 1 ❐ Philosophical Foundations of Education Structure 1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 Education and Philosophy 1.2 Objectives 1.2.1 Education : concept, definition and scope 1.2.2 Concept of Education 1.2.3 Definition of ‘Education’ 1.2.4 Scope of Education 1.2.5 ‘‘Check Your Progress’’—1 1.3 Agencies of education 1.3.1 School an agency of Education 13.2 Family an agency of Education 1.3.3 Community an agency of Education 1.3.4 Role of Mediaas an agency of Education 1.3.5 ‘‘Check Your Progress’’—2 1.4 Philosophies of Education 1.4.1 Idealism 1.4.2 Naturalism 1.4.3 Demerits of Pragmatism 1.4.4 Existentialism 1.4.5 Humanism 1.4.6 Constructivism 1.4.7 Connectionism 1.5 Historical perspective of Indian Education 1.5.1 Gandhi’s Philosophy of Education 1.5.2 Rabindranath Tagore’s Philosophy of Education 9  1.5.3 Jiddu Krishnamurti’s Educational Philosophy 1.5.4 Educational Philosophy of Sri Aurobindo 1.6 Contemporary Indian Perspective 1.7 ‘‘Check your Progress’’ 1.8 Let us sum up 1.9 Answers to ‘Check your Progress’ 1.10 Unit end exercises 1.11 References. 1.1 Introduction Education is a systematic process through which a child or an adult acquires knowledge, experience, skill and sound attitude. It makes an individual civilized, refined, cultured and educated. For a civilized and socialized society, education is the only means, its goal is to make an individual perfect. Every society gives importance to education because it is a panacea for al! evils. It is the key to solve the various problems of life. Education has been described as a process of waking up to life: State the concept, definition and scope of education Waking up to life and its mysteries, its solvable problems and the ways to solve the problems and celebrate the mysteries of life. Waking up to the inter-dependencies of all things, to the threat to our global village, to the power within the human race to create alternatives, to the obstacles entrenched in economic, social and political structures that prevent our waking up. Education in the broadest sense of the term is meant to aid the human being in his/ her pursuit of wholeness. Wholeness implies the harmonious development of all the potentialities God has given to a human person. True education is the harmonious development of the physical, mental, moral (spiritual), and social faculties, the four dimensions of life, for a life of dedicated service. 1.1.1 Education and Philosophy Man is always curious to know: his origin, his aim, his relationship with god, his destiny etc. and this constant effort of man to understand reality may be termed as Philosophy. It is an attempt to unfold life’s mysteries and find meaning in them. Hence it is called the Mother of all Arts and the Science of ail Sciences. 10 1.1.2 Etymological meaning of Philosophy:- Greek origin: -”Philos” (Love) + “Sophia” (Wisdom) i.e. Philosophy = love for wisdom. Philosophy of Education: It deals with the study of education and ways in which it can be improved. It tries to find the best ways to impart instruction. It tries to understand and explain the nature and need of education, methods in which it can be done, and what its ideals should be. The philosophy of education overlaps in the area of study of both, the various branches of philosophy and of education. This has been a topic of interest for philosophers the world over, and still generates a lot of debate and interest. Indian schools of philosophy contribute to humanize their education system by their lifelong education process, where philosophy and education go hand in hand. 1.2 Objectives After going through this unit, you will be able to: State the concept, definition and scope of education Describe the various roles of different agencies of education Explain the different philosophies of education Understand the nature of Indian Philosophy State the educational thoughts of Indian Educational Philosophers Understand contemporary Indian perspective of Educational Philosophy. 1.2.1 Education : concept, definition and scope Education enhances one’s knowledge. Education tells a person how to think and how to walk decision. Education gives an understanding of how we see the world. We need to know what happened in history and what makes us where we are at today. In this sub-unit, you will understand the meaning of education, its scope, concept. After going through this sub-unit, you will be able to : State the concept of education Define education Explain the meaning of education State the scope of education 11 1.2.2 Concept of Education According to some learned people, the word ‘education’ has been derived from the Latin term ‘Educatum’ which means the act of teaching or training. A group of educationists say that it has come from another Latin word “educare’ which means ‘to bring up’ or ‘to raise’. According to a few other, the words ‘education’ has originated from other Latin term ‘Educate’ which means ‘to lead forth’ or ‘to come out’. All these meaning indicate that education seeks to nourish the good qualities in man and draw out the best in every individual. The word ‘Education’ is derived from two words ‘e’ and ‘duco’, ‘e’ means from inside and ‘duco’ means to develop. The two words combined together give the meaning to make something grow or develop from within. The concept of education may also be considered from the narrow and border point of view. In the narrow sense, education is equated with schooling. In this sense, education is said to begin when the child enters to school. It ends when the child leaves the educational institutions which he/she joined for the purpose of receiving education. Education understood in the narrow sense, gives priority to classroom teaching and book learning. In the border sense, education is synonymous with growth and development. In this sense, the span of education is as wide as that of life. This means every experiences in the life, every activity from the cradle to the grave is educative. According to John Storrs Mill, education, in the narrow sense is ‘the culture which generation purposely gives to its successors in order to quality, to keep up and improve the level attained’. In his words, education, in border sense ‘every environment, every surrounding, every activity helps to shape the human being. 1.2.3 Definition of ‘Education’ The word ‘education’ is defined in many different ways. The concept of education as a whole cannot be given by any one particular definition. The concepts of education as given by prominent Indian educationist are as follows : Rig-Veda : ‘Education is something which makes man self-reliant and selfless. Upanishad : ‘Education is that whose end product is salvation.’ Bhagavad-Gita : ‘Nothing is more purifying on earth than wisdom.’ Shankarracharya : ‘Education is the realization of self.’ Kautilya : ‘Education means training of the country and love of the nations.’ 12  Panini : ‘Human education means the training which one gets from natire.’ Gandiji : ‘By education, I mean all round drawing out the best in a child and man by body, mind and spirit.’ Swami Vivekananda : ‘Education is the manifestation of the device perfection, already existing in man. Rabindranath Tagore : ‘Education is that which makes one’s life in harmony with all existences.’ Sri Aurobindo : ‘Education which will offer the tools whereby one can live for the device, for the country, for oneself and for others and this must be the ideal of every school which calls itself national.’ Concepts of ‘education’ as defined by Western Philosophers : Socrates : ‘Education means the bringing out of the ideas of universal validity which are letant in the mind of every man.’ Plato : ‘Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at the right moment. In develops in the body and in the soul of the pupil all the beauty and all the perfection which he is capable of. Aristotle : ‘Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound body.’ Rousseau : ‘Education of man comments at his birth; before he can speak, before he can understand he in already instructed.’ Herbert Spencer : ‘Education is complete living.’ Pestalozzi : ‘Education is the natural, harmonious and progressive development of man’s innate powers.’ Froebel : ‘Education is leading out of hidden power of man.’ UNESCO - ‘Education includes all the process that develops human ability and behavior,’ The lexicographical definition of ‘education is the act or process of importing or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgement and generally of preparing oneself or other intellectually for nature life.’ The remarks of different thinkers and educators highlights the following features of education: 1. Its unilateral as well as be-polar nature. 13  2. Its being drawing out or bring up process. 3. Its being knowledge or experience. 4. Its being conducive for the good of the individual or the welfare of the society. 5. Its being a liberal discipline or a vocational course. 1.2.4 Scope of Education The scope of education is meant to help people deal with various challenges that they come across in life. The scope of education can be explained by its various processes. Education by accretion or storage According to this view, education is the process of gradually filling up the empty mind of the child with grains of knowledge. The teacher’s mind and the books are the store houses of mental granary of the child. This is called the gow-sack theory. The theory is narrow and unsound. It regards knowledge as information of facts and statements t be condensed into compact and logical forms and memorized by the pupils. Education as formation of mind : Education as formation tries to form the mind by a proper presentation of materials. It is formation of mind by setting up certain association or connection of content by means of a subject-matter. Education as preparation : Education as preparation is a process of preparation or getting ready for the responsibilities and privileges of adult life. Preparation for complete living. This theory is the outcome of modern scientific tendency in education. Education as mental discipline : The theory of mental discipline is a traditional concept of education. According to this theory, the process of learning is more important than the thing learned. This theory is based upon the traditional ‘Faculty Theory’ of psychology according to which the mind is divided into a good number of separate faculties such as memory, attention, reasoning, imagination, perception, thinking etc. Education as growth and development : It is a modern concept of education change is the law of nature. Man undergoes changes and transformations from cradle to grave. These changes may be of different types such as physical, mental, moral and emotional. Whenever there is change there is growth. Through change, a living organism can take entirely a new shape and this again gives his/her power to grow. Thus, growing is education and getting education is growing. Education as direction : Educate a child means directing the child in the proper 14 direction. The young learners have innate powers, attitudes, interests and instincts. It is the essential function of education to direct those inborn instincts and power properly in socially acceptable and desirable channels. Education as adjustment and self-activity : Adjustment is essential to an individual for self-development. Education gives an individual the power of adjustment in an efficient manner. Through education, the child learns to adjust with the environment. Adjustment requires self-activity. Education is nothing but adjustment through self- activity. Education as social change and progress : A society is composed of individuals and when the ideas of individuals change the society is bound to change. Change is the law of human life ans society. The function of education is to maintain this progressive trend. Education as a process of socialization :After birth the child becomes a member of the society and the process of socialization begins then. Then the formal education of the child begins. Besides formal education the child continues to learn and gather experiences in informal or incidental way. The process of socialization starts in family environment and then the educational institutions take the responsibility of such process, 1.2.5 ‘Check your progress’ – 1 1. Devise the term ‘education’ ………………………………………………................................................................ 2. What is education according to Swami Vivekananda? ………………………………………………................................................................ 3. What do you mean by ‘gold sack theory’? ………………………………………………................................................................. 1.3 Agencies of Education Education is a lifelong process. It transforms the infant into a natured adult. This transformation I achieved through the contribution of various institutions and bodies. The institutions and bodies which have contributed to the upbringing and education of the individual are the agencies of education. According to the role educational agencies are of two types : Active agencies : Action agencies are those where both educator and learner are 15 active participants. The school, home, family are considered as the ative agencies of education. Passive agencies : Here the teaching-learning process is one way. It is learner is interested he/she may learn. Radio, T.V., Library are the passive agencies. According to the form, educational agencies are of three types : Formal agencies : Formal agencies have specific objectives, curriculum, examination system. They are pre-planned, the place and time are fixed. School, college, university are formal agencies of education. Informal agencies : Informal agencies grow up spontaneously and dissolve in the same way. They indirectly impart education. They include family, society, professional organizations etc. Non-formal agencies : Non-formal agencies help the formal agencies of education. The programmes are meant for out of school youths, adults and others. Correspondence course, open university, adult education include in the non-formal agencies of education. After going through this sub-unit, you will be able to : State the types of agencies of education. Explain the role of school, family, community and media as agencies of education. 1.3.1 School as an agency of Education The school is an institution where the behaviour of individual is shaped to prepare the person to be effective and functional member of his/her society. In the modern time school is treated as the most sintable active and formal agency ofeducation. Role of school : 1. Conservation and promotion of culture : The school conserves culture, tradition and values of society and transmits these to the next generation. 2. All round development of the individual : Through different activities, school develops physical, mental, social, morel development by drawing out the hidden potentialities of a child. 3. Development of values : Schools help to develop the good values like truth, morality, love, empathy, cooperation etc. 4. Development of social responsibilities : Children learn the lessons of social duty & responsibility from different school activities. 5. Citizenship training : School trains the child the lessons of good citizenship. 16 6. Social adjustment : One of the main functions of school is to develop adjustment capacity of an individual. 7. National development : The school is an agent of national development. By performing various co-curricular activities like drama, debate, scout the children learn good attitude, usable skills and knowledge that will make them to develop and contribute meaningfully in their communities. 8. Systematic teaching learning : School serves as a systematic place for learning, teaching and disseminating knowledge. 1.3.2 Family as an agency of education : Two or more people who share goals and values, have long-term commitments to one another and reside usually in the some dwelling can be defined as ‘family’. According to Merian-Webster dictionary ‘family’ is defined in the following ways : a group of people who are related to each other. a persoris children a group of related people including people who lived in the past. Role of family Family is the most important informal agency of education. It is an agency which is responsible for imparting early education and lying down the basis of farther education. As an agency of education family should perform the following duties : 1. Places of affection : The head of the family or then elderly person in the home is a source of affection for younger ones. Children receive good old tradition from the affectionate elders. 2. Makes children social : Every home makes the child more and more social in nature. In the home, there is interaction between the different members of the family. It develops the qualities of mixing with other. 3. Makes children morally sound : The family teacher many things of morality. The child is able to understand the importance of truth, honesty etc. 4. Helps in physical development : Parents are always careful about the health of their children. They try to provide proper diet. They inculcate among them the the habits of cleanliness and the sense of healthy living. 5. Helps in mental development : Full care is also taken by family for mental development of the children. Here mental development means development of mental power such 17 as logical thinking, language development etc. 6. Helps in emotional development : Emotional development is very important for the proper growth and development of the child. The family develops in the child healthy and positive emotions like sympathy, affection, courage. 7. Provides economic security : The child enjoys economic security and all his/her economic needs are fulfilled by the parents which helps to provide a secure atmosphere for the overall development of the child. 8. Transmits vocational knowledge and technical skill : Family acts as a medium of transmission of vocational knowledge and technical skills to children. In this way, children are prepared for future life. 9. Develops self confidence and positive outlook : The secure atmosphere of the family provides self confidence and develops positive outlook or life in the children which helps to develop a confident and well-balanced personality. 1.3.3 Role of community as an agency of education A community is a social unit of any size that shares common values. In human communities intent, belief, resources, preferences, needs, risks and a number of other conditions may be present and common, affecting the identity of the participants and their degree of cohesiveness. Role of community : Community offers definite environments that supply the learner’s personal experiences which the school taps. As an agency of education community performs the following duties – 1. Providing financial resource – It can create formal as well as informal agencies of like schools, library, communication media for the purpose of educating its members. 2. Controls formal education – School is a formal agency of education created by community. The aims, objectives, curriculum, organization are set up by the community. 3. Provides informal education media : Community provides for its people out of school educational media like libraries, music and drama centres, art gallery, health centres etc. 4. Inculcates community culture : Every community has a culture of its own. The child sees the adults preserving and …….. their culture. These help the child to acquire the tradition, cultures, values, customs of the community of his/her own. 18 5. Increases attendance in school : Community helps in increasing attendance and enrolment of the students by motivating its members. 6. Provides physical facilities : It helps in providing physical facilities like building, teaching aids teachers and other elements for better education for the community school. Thus, community is a potential educational force which both the administrator and the teacher must realise. 1.3.4 Role of Media as an agency of education Education and media are integral part of learning. They form a person and transform the society. Media is a means of mass communication. The word ‘media’ comes from the Latin plural of ‘medium’. There are two types of media. 1) Print media. Ex. - newspapers, magazines, journals, books 2) Electronic media. Ex. – radio, television, cinema, internet Role of media Role of print media The role of print media in the process of education is of special importance. It is the basic oldest channel of communication. Ø Newspaper : through newspaper, children can get news and information. Can learn to learn. Can create own opinion. Ø Journals and magazines : through journal and magazines children can learn by articles features, interview, short stories, poems etc. Different types of journals and magazines have different and versatile knowledge source. Ø Book : book is the best source of education. Mostly students depend upon this medium to learn anything. Role of electronic media Ø Role of radio : radio is playing a important role in education. Talk shows are the source of informal education. Many professionals, scholars, educationist come in radio as a guest. Students talk a lot of information and learn by this way. Lryan vain is an educational FM radio station, which disseminated education. Ø Community radio system : radio has now started to enter into the education sector with the name of community radio system. The term ‘community radio’ signifies radio broadcasting with the objections of searing the community by involving members of community. 19 Ø Television : television is a source of informal education. It provides the value addition knowledge to the concerned person. Television provides to learn many things like politics, business, finance, nature, different languages, discoveries and innovations etc. Different news channels help to update information. Ø Films : films are considered a major mass medium because of their mass appeal and influence on society. Learners can know about different culture, other societies norms, values, civilizations and way of living by films. Historical films tell them the old history of the nations. In a dramatic way films tell a current situation of the society. Ø Internet : the internet has a significant potential for providing children and youth with access to educational information and can be compared with a huge home library. 1.3.5 ‘Check your progress’ – 2 1. State the types of educational agency................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2. State two roles of school as agency of education..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3. Give two examples of print media and electronic media..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.4 Philosophies of Education Behind every school and every teacher is a ser related beliefs a philosophy of education. That influences what and how students are taught. A philosophy of education represents answers to question about the purpose of schooling, a teacher’s role, what should be taught and by what means. After going through this sub-unit, you will be able to : State the main areas of Idealism State the main areas of Naturalism State the main areas of Pragmatism State the main areas of Existentialism 20  State the main areas of Humanism State the main areas of Constructivism State the main areas of Connectionism 1.4.1 Idealism Meaning : Idealism is born out of Plato’s ‘theory of ideas’. As a philosophical doctrine, Idealism recognizer ideas, feelings and ideals more important than material objects and at the same time emphasizes that the human development should be according to moral, ethical and spiritual values so that he/she acquires the knowledge. Definition: Idealism is a term with several related meanings. It comes directly from the Greek directly from the Greek ‘idealisms’ which derives from the word idea. To the idealist ‘mind and soul’ rather than the ‘matter and the body’ are more important. Idealist believe that ideas are the only true reality. Protagonists : Socrates Plato Descartes Spinoza Barkley Kant Fitche Schelling Hegal Green Gentile Vedas, Upanishads to the eastern scholars like Sri Arobindo Ghosh. Fundamental principles or tenets of Idealism : 1. Idealists believe that spiritual world is real and the ultimate truth whereas the material would is transitory and mortal. 21 2. They how that the order of the world is due to the manifestation in space and time of an eternal and spiritual reality. 3. To them ideas are the ultimate reality. They are eternal and unchanging. 4. To idealists man is more important than material nature. It is because man can think and experience about material objects. 5. The spiritual or culture environment is an environment of man’s own making. It is a product of man’s creative activity. 6. Idealism believes in spiritual values. They are truth, Beauty and goodness. The realization of these values is the realization of God. 7. Idealists give full support to the principle of unity in diversity. 8. The them God is the supreme force who is omnipotent and omnipresent. 9. Idealist insist upon the fullest development of the personality of an individual. Human personality is of supreme value and constitutes the noblest of God. 10. Idealists believe that knowledge and values are universal and eternal. The true method of obtaining these is the speculation of our reason, our mental or spiritual vision. 11. To them the object of living and learning is to develop the natural man into the ideal man having physical, intellectual, emotional, moral and spiritual perfection. Idealism and aims of education : The following are the aims of education according to the philosophy of Idealism : Self Realization : Idealism considers self realization as an important aim of education. It involves full knowledge of the self. The aim of education is to enable man to become his/her truest self. Spiritual Development : the aim of education is to develop the child mentally, morally and spiritually. To children, truth, beauty and goodness should be encourages more and more. Character Formation : to develop morality in man is an important aim of education. Idealism emphasizes character building and character formation. The process of education must lead to the deepest spiritual insist to the highest moral and spiritual conduct. Preparation for Holy Life : Idealists uphold that education should create such conditions 22 and provide an environment which is conducive to the development of spiritual values in a child. Good ideals will lead a child towards self realization and prepare for a holy life. Preservation and Environment of Cultural Heritage : To idealists the aim of education is to acquaint the child with the cultural heritage so the he/she conserves, promotes and transmits it to the next generation. Intellectual and physical development, the aim of education is to ensure the intellectual development of the child so that he/she may develop his/her innate and creative powers and thereby achieve his/her goal and seek adjustment with the environment. The aim is to ensure physical development of the child also. Physically developed student can early achieve their goals of life. Development of feeling integrity : Idealists believe that implicit in all the diversities is an essential unity. On the basis of caste, sex, colour and relision there are differences in the society, but God is present in all humanity. Feeling of unity is developed among the students through education. Development of Moral values : Education should develop the will power of the child so that he/she may be able to follow the good and avoid evil. This power can be developed by the correct appreciation of truth, goodness and beauty which are the highest moral values. Univeralization of Education: Every child must have an ………… to education. It should be universal because all human beings are equally the children of God. Idealism and curriculum : While developing curriculum, idealists give more importance to thought, feelings ideals and values than to the child and his/her activities. It gives more importance to religion, ethics music and art. In this curriculum only these subjects have been emphasized which are helpful in the personality development. This curriculum lays more importance to those subjects who reflect the achievements of human culture and civilization. For the aesthetic and moral development Herbart gave prime importance to subjects like History. Fine Arts, Music, Poetry, Ethics and Religion. For intellectual development of the child literature, language, science, social studies and mathematics are included in the curriculum. Ross holds the view that man can develop spiritually only when he is physically fit and healthy. This philosophy insists on a sound mind in a sound body. It is essential to keep the body in a proper working order through physical activities. Idealists attach importance to the study of hygiene, Physiology, Gymnastics and Athletics. 23 Idealism and Methods of Teaching Idealists suggest that the method must be oriented to achieving the complete development of all innate abilities of the child and to rain for self realization. Idealists believe in a harmony between individual and social objectives. The child must be provided with a liberal environment for his/her development and his/her education should be related to present experience. Idealists lay stress on instruction, activity and experience. Instruction : The term ‘instruction’, as used here, implies educational instruction which is believed by Herbart to be essential to education. But instruction does not mean that the child mind should be stuffed with various scraps of information. It implies a modification and a refinement of the child’s mind. For this it is essential that the educator must provide sympathetic guidance. Idealists believe that training of all kinds must be provided in the school. Activity : The educational methods recommended by the Idealists are based on activity the child must learn through doing. Creative activity is much more important than questioning. The creative activity should be natural, continuous and progressive. Through mental activity the child learns cheerfully and happily and this also helps in the development of his/her personality. Experience : Idealists also lay stress on experience. Every educed must base all his/her education or his/her own experience. Independence is an essential pre-requisite for experience. Idealists believe freedom is an essential part of education but it must be remembered that freedom is not absolute, but controlled and guided. Both educator and educand should be active and they should indulge is the mutual exchange of experience. Idealism and Discipline : Idealists believe that there can be no spiritual development of the child without discipline. They give importance to impressionistic discipline in comparison to expressionistic discipline. They assert that the teacher should gain respect from the child by his/her affectionali and sympathetic behavior and hen motivate the child by his/her praiseworthy ideals. Idealists believe in guided freedom and strict discipline. Children must endure a restraint on freedom. Self insight and self analysis are the main disciplinary factors. The discipline is not to be imposed on students. The teacher should help them to develop self discipline through self knowledge. Idealists want to combine humility, courtesy, obedience an subordination in discipline. Idealism and Teacher : Idealism assigns a special role to the teacher. It considers teacher as a spiritual guide to 24 the child. The teacher sets the environment in which education talks place. He/she is to guide the student towards almost possible perfection. An idealist teacher is a philosopher, friend and guide. According to gentile – A teacher is “a spiritual symbol of right conduct”. According to Froebel, the school is a garden, the teacher is a cautions gardener and the child is a tender plant. The plant can grow, no doubt, without help but the good gardener sees that the plant grown to the finest possible perfection. According to Aurobindo – the first principle of true teaching is that nothing can be taught. The teacher is not instructor or task master; he is helps and guide. His business is to suggest and guide and not to impose. Criticism of Idealism : Idealism avoids the real problems of daily living. Idealism avoids the present realities and prepares the child for the next world. Idealism lays more emphasis on thinking and mental activities. This increases the importance of intellectualism unnecessarily. Idealistic education gives more importance to teacher in relation to the child. Idealistic methods of teaching emphasize rote memory. 1.4.2 Naturalism Naturalism commonly refers to the philosophical belief that only natural laws and forces in the world and that nothing exists beyond the natural world Natural laws are the rules that govern the structure and behavior of the natural world. Naturalism is also tamed as matsialism. According to this philosophy the basis of the world is matter. Mind is also a form of matter or an element of matter or synthesis of both. Naturalistic philosophy defined life in terms of material and chemical laws and emphasises the relationship between power, speed and matter as of the nature of casual relationship. According to Naturalism only nature is everything, nothing is before and beyond it. Definition of Naturalism : “Naturalism is a term loosely applied in educational theory to systems of training that are not dependent on schools and books but on the manipulation of the actual life of the educated.” ……. I.S. Ross. Types of Naturalism : Physical Naturalism – It explains human activities and experiences in terms of material objects and natural laws. In other words physical Naturalism lays more stress on the external material phenomena than the conscious human being. 25 Mechanical Naturalism : Biological Naturalism is based upon the Darwinian theory of evaluation. Man has evolved from lower animals by a gradual process of development. Man is supreme product of this process of evolution. Advocates of this school uphold that heredity has a powerful influence on the nature and temperaments of an individual human being. Characteristics of Naturalistic Education - Back of nature : Out of three essential factors of education namely nature, man, objects, Naturalism gives prime importance to nature. According to naturalists, the best teacher of the child is nature. Hence, to develop the child according the his/her nature, education should provide natural environment. Education a natural necessity : The Naturalist regards education as a natural necessity. For them, educational institutions are unwanted creation of man supsimposed upon nature. Education development of the natural life : According to Naturalistic through, education is a process of development of the natural life. Freedom of the child : It gives prominent place to the concept of freedom in the education of the child. Child centre : Child occupies the central and pivotal role in Naturalistic education. The child’s nature is in the forefront which all other things such as education, books, curriculum, school are in background. Aims and objectives of Naturalistic education : According to this philosophy, education is for the body as well as the mind. The naturalist, as Herbert Spencer represents them, first regards the pupil from the physical side. Mind and body must both be cared for and the whole being of the student unfolded as a unit. Rousseau’s aim is to show how a natural education enables child to become social, moral and rational while remaining true to his original nature. Since the naturalists deny the validity of any aim outside the natural sphere, their concern mustbe with immediate or proximate aims. Whereas traditional education had placed major emphasis upon intellectual function, the naturalists propos that the child be given opportunity to grow physically, mentally, socially, emotionally, aesthetically, vocationally under the auspices of the school. Specific objectives – l Self preservation is the first objective. In order to live completely he/she has to 26  continue his/her own existence. While instinct is the chief guarantee of this objective, education may also help by acquainting the learner with the laws of health and enabling the person to earn a living. l Securing the necessities of life – It is especially in the realm of developing economic efficiency that education helps in preserving life. Education should train directly for success in this important function. l Raising children – Spacer held that the most important function that most men and women have to perform is that of being parents. Therefore education should deal both with the care of children in the nursery and the discipline of them as growing boys and girls. l Maintenance of social and political relation. Beyond the home man must have some understanding and mastery of social and political processes if living is to be complete. He/she must be a wise citizen who is equipped for effecting social and political action. l Enjoyment of leisure – Complete living also includes freedom form struggle some of the time for ‘gratification of the faster and feeling’. Naturalism and Curriculum : l No rigid curriculum – Naturalism does not advocate any rigid o fixed type of curriculum child learns best in a natural setting and nature is a good book. Naturalistic curriculum is based upon the psychology of child and given maximum importance to the age and stage of his/her development. l Sciences – Naturalists believe in science subjects like physics, Chemistry, Zoology and Botany. They also give importance to Mathematics and Languages. l Focal point – The focal point in the curriculum construction is that the ‘text books and teaching should be oriented towards science and scientific point of view with simplicity and objectivity and with knowledge of relevant facts as the controlling aim. Stages of Education: According to Rousseau there are four stages in education – 1. Infancy – When the child is at this stage, the child is not mature. Infant’s psychology is totally different from the adults. At this stage the child can be taught through normal conversation. 2. Childhood – Rousseau believed that child should not be given books up till the age of twelve. The child must learn through experience. The child learns naturally through his/her own actions and starts developing the ability of reasoning. 27 3. Adolescence – At the stage the child can be taught through formal education. Education should be given through activities and not by books because activities give more knowledge than books. 4. Youth - At this stage special emphasis is laid on moral and religious education. Moral education can also be derived through actual experience. Religious education can be taught through the teaching of history. Mythological stories and religious stories. Methods of Teaching : Naturalists follow a naturalistic philosophy of teaching. According to naturalists people learn more through direct experience that is by doing rather than by reading the books. Rousseau argued not to use any book in the childhood and boyhood stage. Another method is Heuristic method which means to find or to discover. The children are provided with situation and opportunities and the children search. Naturalists stress upon direct method of teaching. Teaching through things rather than words given importance. Rousseau emphasized two-way play method of teaching, learning by doing, durries play also child learns a lot and is education. The principle advocated by Naturalists have brought into being the modern methods of teaching which are – l Observation Method l Experimental Method l Play way Method l Heuristic Methods l Dalton Method l Montessori Method All these methods are self learning methods and as such they are very effective and purposeful. Role of Teacher : The teacher’s role is to remain in background. The natural development of child should be simulated. Since, nature is considered to be best educator. According to naturalists the teacher is the observer and facilitator of the child’s development rather than a giver of information, ideas and will power or a molder of character. In the words of Ross “teacher in a naturalistic set up is only a settler of the 28 stage, a supplier of materials and opportunities, a provider of an ideal environment, a creator of conditions under which natural development takes place. Teacher is only a non-interfering observer.” For Rousseau, the teacher, first of all, is a person who is completely in tune with nature. He has a profound faith in the original goodness of human nature. He believes that human beings have their own time-table of learning. Rousseau opines that teacher should not be in a hurry to make the child learn; instead he should be patient, permissive and non-intrusive. Demonstrating great patience the teacher cannot allow himself to tell the student what the truth is but rather must stand back and encourage the learner’s own self discovery. According to him the teacher is an invisible guide to learning. Naturalism and Discipline : Punishment should be constituted by natural consequences of wrong deeds; should be certain but tempered with sympathy. Naturalism aims at mailing education free from the bondage of rigid discipline under which children were tortured. According to Rousseau “A child born lives and dies in a stage of slowly. At the time of his birth he is stitched in swaddling clothes and at the time of his death he is nailed in a coffin. And as long as he preserves the human form he is fettered by our institutions. Man was born free and everywhere he is in shackles. Naturalism, as a philosophy of education advocated maximum freedom for the child and for the stresses in freeing the child from the tyranny of rigidity, interference and strict discipline. Since classroom discipline usually is associated with methodology, the naturalist asserts that all discipline should derive from the natural elements of the situation. The situation will provide a form of innate discipline that should replace that of the teacher. To illustrate a child learns to avoid hot objects because he has experienced the discomfort and pain which follow his touching them. Pry this means, nature teaches the child the danger of fire. Women Education : In Rousseanis view, the education of girls was to be similar with regard to naturalness, but it differed from the education of boys because of sexual difference. According to him, a woman should be the centre of the family, a housewife, and a mother. She should strive to please her husband and be satisfied with a simple religion of the emotions. Because her intellectual education is not of the essence “her studies must all e on the practical side.” Evaluation : Naturalism is one sided and it has unsatisfying aims of education. The child will become unsocial with no feeling of social service or social good. Naturalism lays stress on the solution of present needs and problems of an individual. It advocates no concern for 29 spiritual values and the remote future. Naturalism emphasizes that education of the child should be based on his activities and life experiences. But only activities and experiences cannot ensure the total development of the child. If given more importance to scientific education. Herbart Spencer has given prime importance to scientific subjects and secondary place to humanities in the curriculum. Naturalism assigns to the teacher the role of a mere guide and observer. The teacher is to be a sympathetic guide and helps in structuring experiences for the child and observe the activities undergone. 1.4.3 Demerits of Pragmatism : l Opposition to eternal truths l Opposition to pre-determined ideas and values l No pre-determined aims of education l Negations of spiritual values l Negation of past l Opposition of intellectuality l Difficulty in the construction of curriculum Contributions of Pragmatism in Education: l It lays more stress on social and vocational efficiency. l It gives important place to teacher. l It stresses on child-centered education. l New teaching methods are the contribution of Pragmatism. l It lays more emphasis on experience and learning by doing. l It opposes pre-determined ideals and values. They are man-made and change according to the changes in circumstances, time and place, l Pragmatism provides academic freedom to every institution. l It gives more Wingate to material values. l Project method is a gift of pragmatism. Through this method child attains knowledge by solving his/her practical problems. l Pragmatism encourages a democratic way of learning through purposeful and cooperative projects and activities. l It is a practical philosophy, having no fixed or absolute standards. Characteristics of Pragmatic Education : l Education as life 30 l Education as growth l Education as continues reconstruction of experience l Education as a social process l Education as a responsibility of the state. Aims of Pragmatic Education : l Creation of new values – Pragmatists have no fixed aims or goals of education. According to Ross” the general educational aim of the pragmatist his just the creation of new values. So the main task of the educator is to put the educed into a position of developing value for himself.” l Activities and experience – For the creation of nee values, activity and experience are essential. Education should, therefore, provide physical, intellectual, moral and aesthetic activities as the media for the creation of values. l Personal and social adjustment – All these aspects are developed not for their own sake, but for meeting the individual and social needs of man. So the main aim of education is ‘to direct the impulses, interest and alrtilies towards the satisfaction of the need felt child in the environment. l Reconstruction of experience – Every individual is required to solve many problems in his/her life. So the aim of education should also be the formulation and cultivation of a dynamic adoptable, resourceful and enterprising mind. It is with such a mind that original and creative thinking is possible which will enable a person to cope successfully with the varied situations of life. Pragmatism emphasises adaptation to environment, construction and re-construction of experience and development of capacities to control the environment. l All round development – All round development of the individual is also important aim of education. The individual develops physically, mentally, socially, morally and aesthetically. Pragmatism and curriculum : l Only activities, experiences and subjects should be included in the curriculum which are useful to the needs of the student and also meet the future expectations of their adult life. l It condemns the principle of cramming and encourages original thinking and freedom to develop social and purposeful attitude. l According to Dewey, experience is the content of education. Ideas formed by 31  previous generation are vital for human survival, and if is the task of education to transmit this knowledge to the younger generations. This, however, should not be done as it was bring done traditionally. Traditional education never relates ideas and experience, and due to this reason, children cannot understand the fought lessons. Dewey says that ideas should be fought as experience. Children should learn to derive ideas from their experience. l In the field of curriculum development, the following principles have been prescribed by pragmatists – (i) Principle of utility – According to this principle, only those subjects, activities and experiences should be included in the curriculum which are useful to the present needs of the child also meet the future expectations of adult life as well. As such language physical well-being, physical training, geography, history, science, agriculture and home science for girls should be included in the curriculum. (ii) Principle of Interest – According to this principle, only those activities and experiences where on the child takes interest should be included in the curriculum. According to John Dewey these interests are of four verities namely – (1) interest in conversation, (2) interest in investigation. (3) interest in construction and (4) interest in creative expression. Keeping these varieties of interests in view, at the primary stage, the curriculum should included reading, writing, counting, art, craft- work, natural science and other practical work of simple nature. (iii) Principle of Experience – The third principle of pragmatic curriculum is the child’s activity, vocation and experience. All these three should be closely integrated. The curriculum should consist of such varieties of learning experiences which promote original thinking and freedom to develop social and purposeful attitudes. (iv) Principle of Integration – Pragmatic curriculum deals with the integration of subjects and activities. According to pragmatists, knowledge is one unit. Pragmatists want to construct flexible, dynamic and integrated curriculum which aids the developing child and the clearing society more and more as the needs, demands and situation require. Pragmatism and Methods of Teaching : Three main methods of teaching in Pragmatism – (i) Learning by doing : Pragmatism is not in favour of old and worn our meeting of teaching. It believes in experimenting with new methods. These methods are devised by the teacher in the light of real life situations. Education is not teaching or imparting knowledge but to encourage learning through self-effort and creative activity. Knowledge is not obtained from books but by actually doing things. 32 (ii) Provision of Real –life Situation: Pragmatism “stresses action rather than reflection.” The child should be put in real situation so that he/she himself/herself solve the problems practically, which arise out of those situations. He/she must be engaged in purposeful creative activity and problematic acts. (iii) Project Method : Most important contribution of Pragmatism is the Project Method, which is “a problematic act carried to completion in its natural setting. The child is given a real and purposeful task to carry out. While doing so, he/she experiences the need of certain principles, skills and methods which he/she acquires, not formally but incidentally. Thus, the child gets knowledge and skills from the experiences gained in the accomplishment of that task. Psychologically also, this method is sound because the child is always interested in doing thing with his/her own hand. In this method, the school, the curriculum and the subject-matter, are all considered from the child’s point of view. There are five stages in the Project Method. First of all, the teacher provides a real situation. Then the pupil chooses the projects and plans for its execution. The next stage is the actual execution of the plans and lastly the evaluation and judgement of its utility. Pragmatism and Role of Teacher : According to Pragmatists, a teacher is friend, philosopher and guide to the child. He/ she must educate the child in social environment so that the child may attain social efficiency. There must be positive relationship between the teacher and the taught. His/her behavior towards children must be sympathetic. His/her attitude should be democratic and child must have academic freedom. Teacher’s function is to suggest problems to his/her pupils and to stimulate them to find for themselves solutions which will works. His/her emphasis is not on the knowledge as arranged and systematized in the text books. He/she wants the children to do one experiment or to have a particular experience. ‘Doing’ is more important than knowledge. The Pragmatist teacher wants “his pupils to think and act for them, to do rather than to know, to originate rather than to repeat.” Pragmatism and Role of student : Students l Want experiences to make the learning real. l Should apply their knowledge to real situations through experimental inquiry l Prepare themselves for citizenship, daily living & future careers. 33 Pragmatism and Role of School : l School’s philosophy is having students gain real experiences of actual life hich develop social sense and sense of duty towards society and the nation. l It is not only a sense of education but a sense of community. l Prepare students to be better citizens. Pragmatism and Discipline : Dewey in ‘Experience and Education : advocated a notion of discipline drawn from the field of sports. Education is activity based, and each activity, like sports has its own laws and regulations. This means that discipline of education comes from individual activities in never imposed from outside. Merits of Pragmatism : l Importance of child l Emphasis on activity l Faith in applied life l Social and democratic education l Progressive and optimistic attitude l Construction of Project Method l Infusion of new life in education. 1.4.4 Existentialism Existentialism is the most individualistic of all modern philosophies. Its overriding concern is with the individual and its primary value is the absolute freedom of the person, who is only what he/she, makes himself/herself to be, and who is the final and exclusive arbiter of the value he/she freely determines for himself/herself. The term ‘Existentialism’ seems to have coined by the French philosopher Gabriel Marcel and adopted by Jean. Paul Sartre. Etymological meaning of ‘existence’ from two German words ex-sistent, meaning that which stands out, that which ‘emerges’ suggests that existentialism is a philosophy that emerges out of problems of life. Key philosopher of Existentialism – Gabriel Marcel, Fredrich Nietzsche, Michel Foucault, Heal-Paul Sartre, Martia Heidegger, Albert Camns. Fundamental Postulates of Existentialism : Permanence and change – The Existentialism doing the pre-eminance of essence, They 34 reject the notion that there is a predetermined nature for every human being. Man is not born with a rational soul which ‘forms the matter’ the body. Man has no essence at birth, he/she must create his/her own essence. No living beings will remain the same, all are in the process of changing. Existence precede essence – Existentialism is a revolt against any kind of determinism and an affirmation of the free nature of man. Existence is prior to essence that man is fundamentally free to create his/her essences. Freedom is identical with existence – Man does not possess free will as a part of his/her essential nature, but rather he/she exists in a state of absolute freedom. None of the environmental or hereditary forces are considered strong enough to impair man’s freedom. The most important characteristic of Existentialist freedom that it is absolute. Man is completely responsible for his/her own decisions and the effects they will have upon himself/herself or others. The absurd when an individual’s consciousness, longing for order, collides with the other’s lack of order, it is absurdity. The notion of the absurd contains the idea that there is no meaning to be found in the world beyond what meaning we give to it. This meaninglessness also encompasses the amorality or unfairness of the world. Fact city – A denial of one’s own concrete past constitutes an inauthentic lifestyle, and the same foes for all other kinds of fact city. Alienation – Feelings of alienation can emerge from the recognition that one’s world has received its meaning from the crowd or others, and not from oneself, or that one is out of touch with one’s inner-self. Our present personal and mental instability follows from the peculiar form of alienation associated with alienation from the centre alienation from meaning, value, purpose and vision, alienation from the roots of and reasons of our humanity. Abandonment pry abandonment, the Existentialists mean that since God does not exist, man is left to his/her own deserts in creating himself/herself and the kind of world in which he/she will live. Existential crisis – The phenomenon of anxiety as an important characteristic of the existential crisis is regarded as rarity and has been described as the “manifestation of freedom in the face of self-experiencing anxiety individuates, hence ‘death’ as an issue readily lends itself to this crisis because only oneself can die one’s own death.” The Existentialist philosophy of Education stresses the followings – l Freedom – kinds should be afforded free will with the expectation that they will respect the free will of others. l Development of the individual Existentialists believe that students should be given the power to define themselves as individuals, and an adult’s role as an educator should involve encouraging, but not dictating. 35 l Subjective view of success when it comes to achievement student are not expected to live up to anyone’s expectations besides the expectations that they have for themselves. Existentialism and Aims of Education : l To help students understand and appreciate themselves as unique individuals who accepts complete responsibility for their thoughts, feelings and actions. l To educate the whole person, not just the mind, since feeling is not divorced from reason in decision maleius. l To help the learner become fully his/her authentic self. l To educate the ‘whole child’, not just one child. l To make the learner conscious for his/her individuality or ‘self’. l To build character, to optimize potential and creativity and enhance the quality of life through knowledge. l To help the individual to realize the best that he/she is capable. l To train the learner to make better choices and also give the child the idea that since his/her choices are never perfect, the consequences cannot be predicted. l To enable every individual to develop his/her unique qualities, to harness his/her potentialities and cultivate his/her individualities. Existentialism and Curriculum : l Leaning is self-paced, self-directed. l Students are given a wide variety of options from which to choose. l Students are afforded great catetude in their choice of subject-matter. l The humanities are given emphasis to provide students with vicarious experiences that will help unleash their own creativity and self-expression. l Composed of fine arts, drama, creative expression, literature and philosophy. l Vocational education is seen more as a means of teaching students about themselves and their potentials than that of earning a livelihood. l History should be taught in order to help the students to change the course of history and to mould future. l Scientific subjects and mathematics should be included in the curriculum but they should not be given more stress, as they deal with objective knowledge. l The curriculum should be chosen, sorted out and owned by the learner. 36 Existentialism and Method of Teaching : l Focus is on the individual. l In teaching history, Existentialists focus on the actions of historical individuals, who provide possible models for the students own behavior, rather than emphasizing historical events. l In arts, Existentialism encourages individual creativity and imagination more than copying and imitating established models. Creativity is an expression of oneself. l In teaching values, teachers employ values classification strategy to help students know themselves and their place in society. Here, teachers remain non-judgemental and take care not to impose their value on their students since values are personal. l Through value classification strategy, the learners will be able to practice sound moral reasoning skills, choose the appropriate response for a value conflict and commit themselves to personal, moral and societal values. l Value education is a matter of choice that goes throughout existence. l There should be private and open spaces in the classroom to facilitate dialogues, small group discussions and individualization to lessen the tension, formality and constraint experienced b the learners. l Criticism to any individual work is less important l Socratic ‘Problem Method’ should be accepted if the problem originated in the life of the one who has to work out the solutions. But it is unacceptable if the problem is derived from the needs of the society. Existentialism and Role of Teacher : The teacher’s role is to help students define their own essence by exposing them to various paths they may take in life and creating an environment in which they may freely choose their own preferred why. In order to exercise one’s freedom in an authentic manner it is also necessary that the teacher develop a critical attitude. The teacher should become aware of how he/she relates to the entire curriculum. Understanding, creating and choosing one’s personal identity – who one is and what one stands for is a desirable characteristic of a teacher. The teacher must himself be a free personality, engaged in such relations and projects with individual students that they get the idea that they too are free personalities. Instead of expecting them to imitate he/she should help them to be original and authentic. The teacher must build positive relationships between himself/ herself and his/her students. The teacher is also changing and growing as he/she guides the pupil in his/her discovery of self. 37 Existentialism and Role of students : Students must – l Construct meaning by themselves l Interpret the material on their own based on their feelings, value, cognitive, structure, talents and situations. l Develop and devise their own way of learning. l Solve their own problem successfully and meet life challenges. Existentialism student’s – l Personal interest l Uniqueness, individuality and differences, experience and interpretation of things. l Originality of ideas and construction of knowledge based on thinking, feeling, interest, commitment and choice. l Awareness of their commitments, potentialities, importance of personal will, self dependence and effort in learning. Evaluation of Existentialism in Education : Existentialism in education is significant in a number of ways. Some argue that Existentialism should be taught to students of all levels. Others feel that the rile of Existentialism in education should be reserved for higher education. In many ways, Existentialism in education could also manifest itself at the teacher level. Most teachers who embody a deeps meaning in their work are more passionate, personable and effective in the classroom. 1.4.5 Humanism The roots of Humanism are found in the thinking of Erasmus, who attacked the religious teaching and thought prevalent in his time to focus on free inquiry and rediscovery of the classical roots from Greece and Rome. He believed in the essential goodness of children, that humans have free will, moral conscience and ability to reason, aesthetic sensibility and religious instinct. Humanism was developed as an educational philosophy by Rousseau and Pestalozzi, who emphasized nature and the basic goodness of humans, understanding through the senses and education as a gradual and unhurried process in which the development of human character follows the unfolding of nature. 38 Recent applications of Humanist Philosophy focus on the social and emotional well- being of the child, as well as the cognitive. Developments of a healthy self-concept, awareness of psychological needs, helping students to strive to be all that they can are important concepts, espoused in theories of Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers and Alfred Adler that are found in classrooms today. Teachers emphasize freedom from threat, emotional well-being, learning processes and self-fulfilment. Principles of Humanistic Education There are five basic principles of Humanistic Education: 1) Students should be able to choose what they want to learn. Humanistic teachers believe that students will be motivated to learn a subject if it’s something they need and want to know. 2) The goal of education should be to foster students’ desire to learn and teach them how to learn. Students should be self-motivated in their studies and desire to learn on their own. 3) Humanistic educators believe that grades are irrelevant and that only self-evaluation is meaningful. Grading encourages students to work for a grade and not for personal satisfaction. In addition, humanistic educators are opposed to objective tests because they test a student’s ability to memorize and do not provide sufficient educational feedback to the teacher and student. 4) Humanistic educators believe that both feelings and knowledge are important to the learning process. Unlike traditional educators, humanistic teachers do not separate the cognitive and affective domains. 5) Humanistic educators insist that schools need to provide students with an unthreatening environment so that they will feel secure to learn. Once students feel secure, learning becomes easier and more meaningful. Aim of Humanistic Education Broadly Educated Man - to produce a broadly educated person possessing a well rounded personality who could assume leadership. Accomplishment - to produce persons who should have a wide range of accomplishments. They should be able to express themselves in poetry, song, dance etc. All pupils should be physically and mentally healthy. According to Humanists perfection must be final aim. 39 Curriculum of Humanistic Education According to Humanism child is the centre of all education and the broad aims of education reflect on the curriculum. The study of old classics should be included in the curriculum as early Humanists considered these to possessing profundity of content, literary style etc. And they believed that all the values such as wide learning, all round development, life of action, qualities of artistic enjoyment could be achieved by teaching classic literature. In comparison with literature and classics, Humanists gave slight attention to mathematics, natural history, music etc. and much less attentions were given by them to the vernaculars in their curriculum. They believed that if history and ethics is to be studied, we should study those as a part of the work of the old classical writers. Physical education was also included in their curriculum and there was due place for it. It aimed at producing a new brave class of people. Methods of teaching in Humanistic Education In teaching literature teacher should talk about author’s style, vocabulary etc. Teacher should give simple directions to overcome the difficulties in the way of learning. Teacher should set exercises for the matter taught. It should not be literal reproduction, the subjects should be reproduced. Teachers should encourage memorization, understanding and reproduction. The maxim is - understand-arrange- repeat. 4 For mature students, early Humanists recommended lectures and debates. Independence and individuality were introduced in learning of lessons. Role of teacher in Humanistic Education Much of a Humanist teacher’s effort would be put into developing a child’s self-esteem. It would be important for children to feel good about themselves (high self-esteem), and to feel that they can set and achieve appropriate goals (high self-efficacy). This form of education is known as child-centred, and is typified by the child taking responsibility for their education and owning their learning. Both praise and blame are rejected by the Humanists. Children can become addicted to praise, and put much effort into receiving praise from their teachers. Such children will often work for the praise, and not work if their efforts go unnoticed. 40 The Humanist teacher is a facilitator, not a disseminator, of knowledge. Participatory and discovery methods would be favoured instead of traditional didacticism.As well as the child’s academic needs the Humanistic teacher is concerned with the child’s affective (or emotional) needs. Feeling and thinking are very much interlinked. Feeling positive about oneself facilitates learning. Discipline in Humanistic Education Humanists believed in discipline in the schools. It was a discipline of kindness than of vindictiveness. There was an appeal to pride and ambition in the child rather than to rigors of punishment. Major contributions of Humanistic Education Humanistic education enhances the teaching of the basics. Many of the major books and articles on humanistic education show teachers how to do a more effective job of teaching reading, writing, math, social studies, etc. Many of the best traditional-subject-matter teachers integrate humanistic education methods and materials into their basic curriculum. Rather than ignoring the basics, humanistic educators seek to expand our concept of what basic education is, saying that basic skills for surviving in today’s world go beyond reading, writing, computation, and vocational skills and include other skills for communicating, problem-solving and decision-making. Humanistic education is supported by years of research and experience. One of the strongest reasons for supporting humanistic education is that, when done effectively, students learn! Considerable evidence shows that cooperative learning structures higher self- concepts, and the student’s motivation and interest in learning all are related to greater academic achievement. Humanistic education supports many goals of parents. What parent does not sometimes wish his or her children would listen more respectfully, choose less impulsively, calm down when overexcited, learn to be assertive without being aggressive, or make better use of their time? Many humanistic education methods teach students how to do these things. “Effectiveness training” teach students how to really listen to others, including parents. “Values clarification” teach students to “thoughtfully consider the consequences” of their decisions. Several humanistic education approaches teach students to relax and control their nervous energy and 41  to plan and take more responsibility for their time. Humanistic educators often report that parents have told them how good communication was increased in their families as a result of some of the class activities and new skills the students learned. Humanistic education encourages parent involvement in the schools. Many humanistic educators are parents themselves, who are very active in their children’s education in and out of school. Humanistic educators believe that parents should be knowledgeable about their children’s curriculum, should be active in parent- teaching activities, should be able to visit the school and observe, should have a way to make suggestions or register complaints about their child’s program, and within reasonable limits, should be allowed to request alternative learning options for their children when they disagree strongly with school practices. Humanistic educators believe that schools have a role to play in the “values education” of students. While the home and religion have the major responsibility in the value development and moral development of children, the school also has a legitimate role. Few parents have ever questioned the school’s role in encouraging the values of punctuality, fairness, health, courtesy, respect for property, neatness and the like. Humanistic educators believe schools also should encourage the democratic and humanitarian values of tolerance, self-respect, freedom of thought, respect for others, social responsibility and the like. Schools cannot and should not be “value-free.” Humanistic education is not psychotherapy. It is not the goal of humanistic education to help students overcome deep-seated emotional problems. Rather, humanistic education seeks to help students to lean useful skills for living and to deepen their understanding of issues relevant to their academic and social development. Teachers do not need to be trained psychologists to conduct humanistic education activities. They do require sensitivity to students, classroom management skills, and the ability to conduct a class discussion. These skills are within the grasp of all good teachers. Humanistic education is not a panacea. No one claims that implementing humanistic education methods and approaches will instantly or even eventually solve all of society’s problems. There are many problems in our communities, 42  country and world which require complex and long-term solutions. At best, humanistic education can better equip young people with the skills and attitudes to play a more effective role in seeking these solutions. Humanistic education is essential for preparing young people to be citizens in a democracy. If democracy is to work,’ its citizens must be educated. They must know how to gather information, distinguish fact from opinion, analyze propaganda, understand many different viewpoints, understand justice, think for themselves, communicate their opinions clearly, and work with others for the common good. These are among the most important skills that humanistic education seeks to teach our youth. 1.4.6 Constructivism Constructivism is a theory of learning based on the idea that knowledge is constructed by the knower on mental activity. In other words, our own perceptions and understandings create our knowledge. This theory supports the idea that learners are considered to be active organisms seeking meaning. Constructivism is often associated with Jean Piaget and Imrnanuel Kant. Piaget coined the terms accommodation and assimilation, which are both related to constructivism. Through assimilation, individuals incorporate new information in already existing framework. According to Piaget, accommodation is the process of reframing one’s mental representation of the external world to fit new experiencesTherefore, accommodation can be seen as the process of learning from failure. Some common tenets of Constructivism 1. Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the issues around which students are actively trying to construct meaning. 2. Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts. And parts must be understood in the context of wholes. Therefore, the learning process focuses on primary concepts, not isolated facts. 3. In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to perceive the world and the assumptions they make to support those models. 4. The purpose of learning is for an individual to construct his or her own meaning, not just memorize the “right” answers and regurgitate someone else’s meaning. Since education is inherently interdisciplinary, the only valuable way to measure 43  learning is to make the assessment part of the learning process, ensuring it provides students with information on the quality of their learning. Types of Constructivism I Trivial Constructivism -The simplest idea in constructivism, root of all the other shades of constructivism, is Trivial Constructivism or Personal Constructivism or Cognitive Constructivism. In this principle, Knowledge is actively constructed by the learner, not passively received from the environment. II. Radical constructivism - Radical constructivism adds a second principle to Trivial Constructivism. Coming to know is a process of dynamic adaptation towards viable interpretations of experience. The knower does not necessarily construct knowledge of a “real” world. III. Social Constructivism or Socio-Constructivism - The social world of a learner includes the people that directly affect that person, including teachers, friends, students, administrators, and participants in all forms of activity. This takes into account the social nature of both the local processes in collaborative learning and in the discussion of wider social collaboration in a given subject, such as science. IV. Cultural constructivism - Beyond the immediate social environment of a learning situation are the wider context of cultural influences, including custom, religion, biology, tools and language. V. Critical constructivism - Critical constructivism looks at constructivism within a social and cultural environment, but adds a critical dimension aimed at reforming these environments in order to improve the success of constructivism applied as a referent. VI. Constructionism - Constructionism asserts that constructivism occurs especially well when the learner is engaged in constructing something for others to see. Aims of Constructivism Education 1. We have to focus on the learner in thinking about learning not on the subject or lesson to be taught. 2. There is no knowledge independent of the meaning attributed to experience by the learners or community of learners. 3. Learning is an active process in which the learners uses sensory input and constructs meaning out of it. 4. Learning consists of both constructing meaning and constructing system of meaning 44 5. Physical actions, hands on experiences may be necessary for learning, especially for children, but it is not sufficient, we need to provide activities which engage the mind as well as the hands Dewey called this reflective activity. 6. Our learning is intimately associated with our connection with other human beings, our teachers, our peers, our family as well as casual acquaintances, including the people before us or next to us at the exhibit. 7. We do not learn isolated facts and theories in some abstract ethereal land of the mind separate from the rest of our lives. Constructivist Classroom In the constructivist classroom, both teacher and students think of knowledge not as inert factoids to be memorized, but as a dynamic, ever-changing view of the world we live in and the ability to successfully stretch and explore that view. Difference between Traditional Classroom and Constructivist Classroom - Traditional Classroom Constructivist Classroom Curriculum begins with the parts Curriculum emphasizes big concepts, of the whole. Emphasizes basic beginning with the whole and expanding to skills. include the parts. Strict adherence to fixed curriculum is highly valued. Pursuit of student questions and interests is valued. Materials are primarily textbooks and workbooks. Materials include primary sources of material and manipulative materials. Learning is based on repetition. Learning is interactive, building on what the student already knows. Teachers disseminate information to students; Teachers have a dialogue with students, students are recipients of knowledge. helping students construct their own knowledge. Teacher’s role is directive, rooted in authority. Teacher’s role is interactive, rooted in negotiation. Assessment is through testing, correct answers. Assessment includes student works, observations, and points of view, as well as tests. Process is as important as product. Knowledge is seen as inert. Knowledge is seen as dynamic, ever changing with our experiences. Students work primarily alone. Students work primarily in groups. 45 Characteristics of Constructivist Teaching One of the primary goals of using constructivist teaching is that students learn how to learn by giving them the training to take initiative for their own learning experiences. According to Audrey Gray the characteristics of a constructivist classroom are as follows: the learners are actively involved the environment is democratic the activities are interactive and student-centred the teacher facilitates a process of learning in which students are encouraged to be responsible and autonomous Teaching Methods Engage - The students first encounter and identify the instructional task. Teachers must engage students in their lessons in order for them to learn. Teachers engage students by -guiding whole group discussions, asking students to explain what they learned, working together in small groups to complete projects or tasks. Explore- In the Exploration stage the students have the opportunity to get directly involved with phenomena and materials. Students inquire, work together, form hypotheses, and learn about new ideas and concepts on their own before coming together as a whole class. Students develop an idea of what they may think an object or idea is, and then explores it further to see if their idea was accurate. Students use tools such as textbooks, the internet, scientific instruments, and their creative minds to explore new concepts. Explain- Explain, is the point at which the learner begins to put the abstract experience through which she/he has gone into a communicable form. The students will define and explain the current concept using their own words. The student will accomplish this using informational readings, group discussions, and teacher interaction. Learners will support each other by sharing their ideas, observations, questions, and hypotheses. Elaborate- To Elaborate the students expand on the concepts they have learned, make connections to other related concepts, and apply their understandings to the world around them. Students will expand their learning on the concepts by making connections to related concepts and applying their understanding to the world 46  around them. This ‘will help students make connections that will lead them to more inquiry which will lead to new understandings. Evaluate- Evaluate is an on-going diagnostic process that allows the teacher to determine if the learner has attained understanding of concepts and knowledge. Constructivism encourages teachers to assess their students learning on an ongoing basis. In traditional classrooms, assessment would be paper tests taken by the students after the content was taught and in which they received a grade. In a constructivist classroom the teacher assesses the students work and adapts the lesson plan to meet the needs of the learner. Techniques and methods in a constructivist classroom: Teacher encourage students’ intellectual involvement trhough: Discussion Small group work Student presentation Debate Simultations Brain-storming Individul study Teacher acceptes and encourages students autonomy. Teacher acceptes induvidual differences. Students are asked open-ended questions and allowed time for resdonding. Teacher encourages students to higher-level thinking. Students communicate with both teacher and classmates. Students engage in experince. Raw data, primary sources, malipulatives, physical and interactive materials are used by students. Role of the teacher Constructivist teachers do not take the role of the “sage on the stage.” Instead, 47  teachers act as a “guide on the side” providing students with opportunities to test the adequacy of their current understandings- The educator should consider the knowledge and experiences students bring to class Learners construct their knowledge through a process of active enquiry ‘Discovery’ is facilitated by providing the necessary resources Knowledge is actively constructed & learning is presented as a process of active discovery Provide assistance with assimilation of new and old knowledge Learning programme should be sufficiently flexible to permit development along lines of student enquiry Create situations where the students feel safe questioning and reflecting on their own processes Present authentic tasks to contextualize learning through real-world, case-based learning environments Support collaboration in constructing knowledge, not competition Encourage development through inter-subjectivity Providing Scaffolding at the right time and the right level Provide opportunities for more expert and less expert participants to learn from each other Role of the student The expectation within a Constructivist learning environment is that the students plays a more active role in, and accepts more responsibility for their own learning,- Students have to accommodate & assimilate new information with their current understanding One important aspect of controlling their own learning process is reflecting on their experiences Students begin their study with pre-conceived notions Students are very reluctant to give up their established schema/idea & may reject new information that challenges prior knowledge 48  Learners need to use and test ideas, skills, and information through relevant activities Students need to know how to learn or change their thinking/learning style For students to learn they need to receive different ‘lenses’ to see things in new ways Discipline in a constructivist classroom Teacher should give opportunity to the students to choose between two behaviours. Teacher should try to understand the reason of the problem behaviours. Teacher should clarify his expectations. Teacher should focus on the present behaviour of the student. There should be a reliable communication between teacher and students. Teacher should behave consistently. Teacher and students should establish the rules of classroom together. Teacher and students should find solutions to the problems in a cooperative way. Teacher should use logical consequences rather than punishment. Teacher should help students to be responsible individuals. Students should be encouraged to be autonomous learners. Therefore they can take the responsibility of the negative consequences of their behaviours. Benefits of Constructivism Children learn more, and enjoy learning more when they are actively involved, rather than passive listeners. Education works best when it concentrates on thinking and understanding, rather than on rote memorization. Constructivism concentrates on learning how to think and understand. Constructivist learning is transferable. In constructivist classrooms, students create organizing principles that they can take with them to other learning settings. Constructivism gives students ownership of what they learn, since learning is based on students’ questions and explorations, and often the students have a hand in designing the assessments as well. Constructivist assessment engages the students’ 49  initiatives and personal investments in their journals, research reports, physical models, and artistic representations. Engaging the creative instincts develops students’ abilities to express knowledge through a variety of ways. The students are also more likely to retain and