PSYC 172 Winter 2025 Section B Midterm Study Guide PDF

Study Guide (PSYC 172) Winter 2025 Class 1 (Chapter 1) – Introducing Health Psych 1. Health Psychology Definition a. Definition : individual behaviors & lifestyles that affect a person’s physical health b. What constitutes a lifestyle c. Nutrition 2. Pattern of Disease and Death a. Infectious Diseases i. was the leading cause of death until the 1900s ii. includes organisms like bacterias, parasites, fungi, etc. iii. Discovery of Penicillin and antibiotics help curbed infectious disease b. Chronic Diseases i. currently the leading cause of death in the 2000s ii. long lasting or recurrent disease (e.g. heart disease, stroke, cancer) 3. Life expectancy a. Life expectancy 1900 : 2019 i. 47.3 : 78.9 years ii. Increased bc of disease prevention, vaccines, drinking water, nutrition, sewage disposal b. Infant mortality rate i. Decreased over time as a result of more advanced medicine → caused the overall life expectancy to increase c. Pandemic dip i. 2020-2021 - life expectancy = 77.0 1. Pandemic, injury, heart/liver disease ii. 2022 - life expectancy = 77.5 4. Opioids a. Natural vs. synthetic (narcotics) i. Natural: opium, heroin, morphine, codeine ii. Synthetic: methadone compounds iii. Each drug has diff strength, speed of action, and tolerance level b. Cause of CNS depression: slowing down body functions i. Drugs attach to endorphin brain receptors -> less receptors -> need for more pleasure/calm 5. Dangers of Opioids a. Immediate Danger: Overdose i. Closes respiratory center in brain ii. If encountered: Naloxone = opioid antagonist b. Impurity/infection from unhygienic equipment c. Opioid epidemic i. 1999-2019, U.S: ~ 500,000 overdose deaths involving any opioid 1. Compared to vietnam war: 58,220 ii. Three waves : 1. Wave 1 → rise in prescriptions starting in 1990s, pill mills and large company kick-backs 2. Wave 2 → rise in heroin deaths in 2010, heroin is cheap and is being used to help quit cigs 3. Wave 3 → rise in synthetic opioid deaths in 2013, fentanyl enters drug scene and is used independently and to cut other drugs Class 2 (Chapter 2) – Conducting Health Research 1. Biomedical Model - views health as the absence of disease, focuses on the physical/biological aspects of disease a. Infectious disease model i. no infection = healthy! ii. if you don't have an infection infecting your body, you’re good to go, health is the absence of disease, doesn't incorporate chronic disease b. Pathogenic-based i. disease results from exposure to a pathogen 2. Biopsychosocial Model - disease results from a variety combination of biological, psychological, and social influence a. Chronic disease model - acknowledges that chronic disease can have biopsychosocial factors - all at play at once b. Biological, social, psychological factors i. psychological (im born this way, i can't change or I cant afford it, I won't get help) ii. social (what happens in your environment to give you a certain behavior, eg, trying to exercise more and having a friend who doesn't, start to distance yourself more) iii. Example: obesity 1. Has many overlapping factors - food deserts, target marketing etc. 2. Obesity and chronic disease makes a person more vulnerable to covid and other infectious diseases 3. 3. Misconceptions of Research Findings a. The French Paradox i. - french have high saturated fat but not that high rates of cardiovascular disease, so they attributed this to wine consumption, but after looking into it, they eat a lot of veggies and walk a lot, and had a war where there were food deficits of not heating high saturated fat food, the study was funded by the wine industry ii. - french log data about heart attacks differently too, numbers are not comparable iii. - serge renaud, french researcher iv. - disconnect french high saturated fat consumption and low rates of cardiovascular disease v. - attributed to large red wine consumption b. Diet-heart hypothesis i. - diet-heart hypothesis = saturated fat in diet increases serum cholesterol and causes heart attacks ii. - disproven - unpublished data the Minnesota Coronary Experiment (MCE) (1968-1973) 4. Research Methods in Psychology a. Correlational Studies - cannot determine causation i. - example - cholesterol ii. - if levels are higher, makes it more likely you'll have a heart attack (some hypothesis), which lead to thinking consuming less cholesterol you'll have less cholesterol in the blood, it has now been disproven iii. - consumed cholesterol raises blood cholesterol iv. - dietary guidelines recommended low cholesterol diet for last 50+ years without validation v. - today causal relationship completely invalidated b. Placebo Effect - inactive substance or condition that has the appearance of an active treatment i. A belief in the effectiveness of a treatment boosts the treatment effectiveness ii. Placebo effect may account for around 35% of treatment effect iii. Placebos have been shown to lead to positive health outcomes for many health disorders and symptoms 1. Migraine, pain, depression, anxiety, insomnia, asthma, hypertension iv. Research and the placebo effect 1. Treatments are effective when the treatment is more effective than the placebo 2. To determine if treatments are effective a. Need to directly compare treatment vs the placebo b. Use two groups of people; one group gets treatment and one get placebo 3. What you think about the treatment will impact its effectiveness 4. Placebo research works best with medication 5. Medical Research Funding a. Coca-Cola Obesity Research i. - coca-cola working with researchers to disprove bad relationship, oop coca provides 3 million to the academy, partnered together and they support them and there is chaos ii. - they have sneaky allies b. Aduhelm Alzheimer’s Medication i. - roughly six million americans have alzheimer's ii. - drugs typically delay cognitive decline by only a few months iii. - new alzheimer's drug - aduhelm (manufacturer Biogen) iv. - mar 2019 - two clinical trials stopped, ineffective v. - significant side effects, brain bleeding vi. - oct 2019 - biogen argued higher dose effective vii. - data unpublished viii. - nov 2020 - FDA advisory committee voted 10 to 0 (with one "uncertain") against approving Aduhelm ix. - they didn't think it demonstrated effectiveness x. - jun 2021 - FDA accelerated approval of Aduhelm, xi. - something happened... find the book meeting between the biogen executive and FDA big guy, swayed, sell it and prove its effectiveness later!! xii. - biogen required to complete another clinical trial proving effectiveness in next ten years xiii. - can start selling immediately (at $56,000/year) even though some significant side effects xiv. - jul 2021 - federal investigation into FDA approval process xv. - jan 2023 - FDA approval went forward xvi. - effect was so small it is barely significant, someone in FDA spoke out, some quit in response Class 3 (Chapter 3) – Seeking and Receiving Healthcare 1. Universal Healthcare: – Definition “all individuals and communities receive the health services they need without suffering financial hardship” e.g., bankruptcy a. Socialized medicine: government owned hospitals b. Single Payer system: government health insurance c. Reduces bankruptcy d. Advantages of UHC i. Improves access ii. Decreases risk of bankruptcy e. Disadvantages of UHC i. Criticism = overall quality and variety of care decreases ii. Government funding requires renovating whole system 2. Value-based Care a. Global payment b. Fee for service - pay per visit or procedure c. Decrease load on emergency care; shift to preventative care 3. Who is likely to seek care? a. Socioeconomic factors, stigma, etc. i. Gender: women more likely than men to use healthcare ii. Age: Young adults (older individuals may attribute symptoms to aging) iii. SES: higher socioeconomic status is more likely to seek treatment often, however lower socioeconomic have higher rates of hospitalizations b. Race based care - adverse beliefs against African American patients 4. Important Legislation That Changed Healthcare a. Affordable Care Act - 1. Consumer protection 2. Increasing Access (Increased Medicaid options & alternatives to employer market) 3. Improved care (Increased preventive care) b. No surprises Act - 1. Billing protections for patients. 2. Prevents surprise bills after services. 3. Restricts balance billing. c. Mental Health Parity and Addiction Equity Act - Ensures equal coverage of MH and addiction treatment. Includes all types of services, ex: outpatient, inpatient, residential 5. Role of Health Psychology in the Healthcare System a. Navigating System i. Health Psychologists can help children and parents manage this stressful experience to ease the distress ii. Anything that can be done to provide patient with information and sense of control will decrease hospital anxiety b. Navigating Identity i. c. Advocating for patients i. How to Support the Patient and/or Family 1. Stay calm and methodical 2. Write down symptoms, history and questions 3. Take notes during discussions with medical providers 4. Repeat back what you hear from medical providers to confirm you are understanding what is said 5. Learn how to reconnect with providers a. "I know we will have questions later. Who is the best person for us to ask?" ii. It is important to have an advocate or to advocate for your own needs when hospitalized Class 3 (Seek and Receive Health Care) Who is most likely to receive medical care? 1. Personal factors 2. Gender 3. Age 4. Socioeconomic and ethnic 5. Stigma 6. Symptom characteristics a. Symptom characteristics i. Symptom characteristics influence seeking medical attention 1. More likely to seek attention when: a. Symptoms are more visible b. Person perceives symptoms as more severe c. The symptoms interfere with everyday life Class 4 (Chapter 4 – Adhering to Healthy Behaviors 1. Adherence a. Types of Adherence - following medical regime - maintaining healthy lifestyle practices - going to the doctor regularly b. Goals of Adherence - maintain patient health - improving health outcomes (preventing disease progression & having control over symptoms) - maximizing quality of life - minimizing health risks and complications - promoting disease prevention - increasing longevity - minimizing healthcare costs - enhancing autonomy 2. Reasons for Adherence a. Longevity vs. Quality - patients may prioritize increasing their lifespan which leads them to adhere to strict medical regimes that extend life even if they have side effects or require significant life changes (this perspective refers to more years of life rather than the quality of life) - patients who prioritize quality of life docs more on living well than living long so they may prefer treatments and lifestyles that improve quality rather than quantity of years b. Health Span vs. Life Span - related to Longevity vs. Quality - life span is the total number of years a person lives (longevity) - healthspan is the number of years someone lives in good health (quality) c. Healthspan is the number of years without serious disease vs life span is the years lived 3. Barriers to Adherence a. Cost - patients stop taking medication when the price is inaccessible or adding up from multiple medications - lack of insurance coverage b. Symptom Characteristics - patients stop taking medication when symptoms disappear - there might be negative side effects - fear of side effects c. Patient-Provider Communication - There is poor communication & regimen is seen as too difficult or time-consuming - memory issues - lack of understanding of the treatment 4. Theoretical Models of Adherence a. Transtheoretical Model - People progress and regress through five stages of change: pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance 1. pre-contemplation: the patient is not yet considering any change, they are unaware of adherence/might be resistant to change 2. contemplation: the patient begins to recognize the need to change but they have not communicated this realization or taken action 3. preparation: the patient is intending to take action and may begin taking steps toward adherence 4. action: the patient actively changes behavior and has made significant changes like treatment or new habits 5. maintenance: the patient works to sustain the changes the have made 5. Methods of Adherence a. Motivational Interviewing - Clinical method evolved from stage model, goal: activate patient’s own motivation for change and adherence to treatment b. SMART Goals: specific measurable achievable result focused time bound Class 5 (Chapter 5 – Defining, Measuring, and Managing Stress 1. Impacts of Stress a. Psychological i. Can make individuals feel anxious angry, sad, and cause depression ii. As well as changes in hormones iii. Fight, Flight, Freeze or Fawn b. Physiological i. Can cause hypertension, asthma, ulcers, a poor-functioning immune system and, death ii. Body becomes tense and activated or shut down and lethargic or waves of both 2. Gut Relation to Stress a. Neurotransmitter production i. Dopamine - pleasure, addiction (50% produced in the gut) ii. Serotonin - mood balance, depression (90% in the gut) b. Vagus nerve and communication i. Communication between the brain and internal organs ii. Ventral vagal pathway = rest, digest, and socialize (softly applying the brake pedal and coasting iii. Dorsal vagal pathway = shut down due to overwhelm (aka slamming on the brakes) c. Regulation of brain chemistry i. The gut helps regulate brain chemistry ii. Gut health = mood and cognitive health 3. Stress hormones i. Occurs in the endocrine system, as stress impacts the nervous system and endocrine. Both the nervous system and endocrine share, synthesize, and release chemicals b. Adrenaline i. It is produced in the adrenal medulla, is a good index for stress, and can be measured in urine c. Noradrenaline i. A hormone and neurotransmitter that maintains blood pressure, memory, and sleep. d. Cortisol i. Can be used as an index of stress, measured through either saliva or urine 4. General Adaptation System i. The body’s generalized attempt at defending against a stressor occurs in three stages ii. Continued stress will cause prolonged resistance, which may result in ulcers hypertension, asthma, and a poor-functioning immune system b. Alarm stage i. The initial response to the stressor c. Resistance i. The body mobilizes to defend against the stressor d. Exhaustion i. Ongoing response to stress which leads to depleted resources for the body 5. Lazarus’ View of Stress a. Stress determined by individual i. Perception of the event, not the event itself, determines what is stressful b. Stress is interactional i. between person and environment, ii. a person’s appraisal is a key determinant of what is stressful c. Stress arises in threatening, challenging/harmful situations i. Coping is a process due to it constantly changing and adapting to the situation, it is not automatic, requires effort, and is useful for managing a situation. ii. Some coping strategies are Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), animals and nature, emotional disclosure, nutrition, and mindfulness. Class 6 (Chapter 6 – Understanding Stress, Immunity, and Disease 1. Psychoneuroimmunology a. Interventions b. Ongoing Research: focuses on the relationship between various stressors and altered immune systems function. c. Systems involved: immune system, endocrine system, nervous system. 2. Weathering Hypothesis a. Definition i. The long-term effects of “high effort” social coping lead to greater risk of certain conditions for certain ethnic groups in America. b. Biomarkers of stress i. Hypertension, diabetes, strokes c. Demographic differences i. Black patients show biomarkers 6 years more “weathered” than White patients. ii. Mexican immigrants show weathering if in the US for more than a decade. d. Timeline of changes i. 6-10 years. 3. Lymphatic System a. Components and their functions: i. Lymphatic system: Lymph nodes, tonsils, spleen, bone marrow ii. Lymph nodes: filter lymph fluid. trap bacteria, viruses, cancer, and other foreign substances iii. Lymphocytes: type of white blood cells found in lymph, includes b-cells and t-cells. Produces antibodies to kill particular target, destroys trapped foreign substances. b. Immunotherapy: c. Cancer Cells: i. Cancer cells can metastasize through the lymphatic system (break off and transfer elsewhere in the body). ii. Drainage of excess fluid from cancer cells can cause lymphatic swelling. 4. Negative Impacts of Stress a. Immunity or immune system i. Missing sleep, drinking alcohol, smoking, sedentary lifestyle, poor food quality, and social isolation are all stressors that negatively affect the immune system and increase risk of disease. b. Behavior i. Self care, social support, energy & time management, gratitude c. Chronic or Physical diseases i. Headaches, infectious diseases, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, ulcers, diabetes, pregnancy, asthma, arthritis are all impacted by stress. ii. Headaches: Stress may increase number or severity of headaches. Most common being a tension headache. d. Gut Digestion i. Gut health is central to overall health. ii. Stress impacts digestion via: 1. Eating fast → low salivation, poor chewing, low stomach acid 2. Stress → decreased digestive enzymes, changes in signalling & motor responses. 5. ACE Study a. 3 Categories: abuse, household challenges, neglect b. Long-term impacts: i. Significantly greater risk of disease and lower life expectancy. Class 7 (Chapter 7) – Understanding and Managing Pain 1. Types of pain a. Acute i. brief pain, eg: a cut/burn/injury ii. Adaptive in that it signals the person to avoid further injury b. Chronic i. Endures over months ii. No adaptive reason that it signals the person to avoid further injury 2. Posture a. Ergonomics i. Design or arrange areas and equipment so they are efficient and safe b. Common posture problems i. Computer / cell phone / lifting / backpack / standing and walking 3. Psoas muscles a. Connection between torso and legs i. Affects posture and stabilizes the spine ii. Can contribute to low back and hip pain b. Startle response i. Psoas contracts 4. Pain treatment a. Analgesic drugs i. Relieve pain; most likely to be opiates or non-narcotic analgesics b. Tolerance/dependence i. A big limitation to using drugs to treat pain c. Over-medication i. A big limitation to using drugs to treat pain d. Cannabis i. Potential for variety of chronic illness, especially chronic pain and cancer ii. Evidence helpful for anxiety and depression iii. Risk triggering for some (panic, psychosis, habit forming) e. CBT 5. Mindfulness Training a. Increase awareness of sensations i. Aims to increase awareness/acceptance of all sensations - even those of pain and physical discomfort - and emotions that accompany those sensations b. Experience of pain is individualized i. Subjective, situational, and cultural c. Pain tied to life experience i. Pain is often tied to life experiences in complex ways 6. Experiencing pain a. Ethnic differences i. There are racial biases that exist within the medical system, where some medical providers believe that some ethnic groups perceive less pain than others. There have been differences in how some ethnic groups experince pain, with African Americans and Hispanic Americans reporting higher sensitivity to pain. b. Gender differences i. Women have reported lower rates of pain to pain like caused by temperature or pressure, while experiencing higher rates to pain that is caused by restricted blood flow. When it comes to the experience of chronic pain, there is not a significant difference. 7. Pain gate control theory a. Open vs. closed gate i. Neural gaet in spinal cord regulates experience of pain ii. Open gate = more pain, closed gate = less pain b. Thoughts/emotions impact gates i. Thoughts and emotions open and close pain gates c. Nerve fibers send info to brain i. Large = being touched or feeling pressure on your skin ii. Small = pain and temperature Class 8 (Chapter 8 – Considering Alternative Approaches 1. Scientific Research on CAMs a. 2012 survey i. “Top 10 most common complementary health approaches among adults in from 2021 NCCIH Survey” ii. Result: 30% of adults use health approaches that are not typically part of conventional medicine b. Types of CAMs i. Note: these CAMS were included in the NCCIH Survey too* ii. Acupuncture iii. Ayurveda iv. Biofeedback v. Chelation Therapy vi. Energy Healing vii. Hypnosis viii. Massage Therapy ix. Naturopathy x. Chiropractic or osteopathic manipulation xi. Relaxation and stress management techniques xii. Traditional healer xiii. Movement healer xiv. Natural herbs xv. Vitamins xvi. Homeopathy xvii. Special diets xviii. Yoga, Tai Chi, and Qi Gong Prayer c. Usages of CAMs i. Result from 2012 study: 1. Natural Products : 17.7% 2. Deep breathing : 10.9% 3. Yoga, Tai Chi, or Qi Gong: 10.1% 4. Chiropractic of Osteopathic Manipulation : 8.4% 5. Meditation : 8% 6. Special Diets : 3% 7. Special Diets : 3% 8. Homeopathy : 2.2% 9. Progressive Relaxation 2.1% 10.Guided Imagery 1.7% 2. Meditation a. Transcendental: Sit quietly and listen to sound(eg. om), origin in india b. Mindfulness: origin from buddhism, sit quietly and focus on thoughts and sensations nonjudgmentally c. Guided: Guided imagery-follows a storyline, focus on phsycial sensations and breathing 3. Biofeedback: providing feedback about the status of biological systems 4. Heart Rate Variability: Measure of the normally occuring beat to beat changes in heart rate a. Electromyograph:(muscle tension) control low back pain and headaches by helping to decrease muscle tension b. Thermal:(changes in skin temp) to recognize stress response 5. Traditional Chinese Medicine a. Acupuncture and acupressure i. Acupuncture: Inserting needles into specific point of the body ii. Acupressure : Application of pressure on specific points of the body b. Cupping and moxibustion i. Cupping : medicine technique that involves placing hot/warm cups on the skin to create suction c. Diet and exercise i. Qigong and Tai Chi ii. Diet: (example) decrease sugar and diary 6. Ayurvedic Medicine a. Yoga: origins from india, moves body in ways to help concentration and energy in the body b. Prevention and correction of imbalance: 7. Integrative Medicine: mixture of both conventional medicine and CAMS a. Conventional and alternative medicine: Best of both worlss b. Multidisciplinary health teams Class 9 (Chapter 9 – Behavioral Factors in Cardiovascular Disease 1. Cardiovascular system a. Heart - 4 chambers b. Arteries - aorta, pulmonary artery, coronary arteries i. Carry oxygenated blood AWAY from the heart c. Veins - vena cava i. Carry oxygen-DEPLETED blood TO the heart 2. Coronary diseases a. Atherosclerosis: formation of plaques in the arteries i. athero=soft pasty materials ii. Sclerotic: grown rigid or unresponsive b. Arteriosclerosis: loss of elasticity of the arteries i. arterio=artery c. Ischemia: restriction of blood flow d. Coronary artery disease: damage of the coronary arteries by either atherosclerosis or arteriosclerosis e. Coronary heart disease: damage to the myocardium as a result of insufficient blood supply f. Stroke: damage to the brain due to LACK of oxygen i. Oxygen deprivation= brain tissue dies in 3-5 minutes ii. 5th most frequent cause of death in USA iii. Damages neurons in the brain iv. If survived usually loss of some function 3. Stroke a. Common stroke: caused by a clot in narrowed brain artery due to plaque deposits b. Hemorrhagic stroke: bleeding in brain due to ruptured artery; blood loss and bleeding pressure cause damage to cells 1. Symptoms for Stroke: trouble speaking/comprehending, numbness or paralysis in face, arm, leg, vision issues, headaches, difficulty walking c. Transient ischemic attack: mini-stroke due to temporary lack of adequate blood and oxygen(ischemia) to the brain i. Same signs and symptoms of a stroke which go away within a short period of time 4. Treatments for CAD a. Bypass surgery: creates graphs of arteries to create new paths for blood to go around a blocked artery in the heart i. Pros: eases symptoms ii. Improves heart function iii. Cons: does not cure disease long term, that caused the blockages iv. If not cured, over time other arteries of the graphs can get blocked b. Cardiac rehabilitation: Lifestyle Changes can help cure heart disease, or keep from blockages recurring c. Nutrition, exercise, stress management, social connection 5. Blood pressure a. Hypertension: abnormally high blood pressure; predictor of heart attack and stroke i. ⅓ of all Americans have hypertension ii. Generally causes no pain/lacks symptoms b. Systolic pressure: pressure generated by the heart’s contraction c. Diastolic pressure: pressure experienced between contracts, reflects elasticity 6. Treatments for Hypertension a. Medication b. Lifestyle changes such as diet and exercise c. Stress management i. Sodium intake 1. U.S. Dietary Guidelines

PSYC 172 Winter 2025 Section B Midterm Study Guide PDF

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