Gr 10 IB Chemistry Notes PDF

**CHEMISTRY** **Particle Theory:** 1\. All matter is made up of tiny particles 2\. Particles are always moving 3\. Particles move faster at higher temperatures 4\. Particles attract each other 5\. Each type of pure substance has its own type of particle different from other pure substances **...

**CHEMISTRY** **Particle Theory:** 1\. All matter is made up of tiny particles 2\. Particles are always moving 3\. Particles move faster at higher temperatures 4\. Particles attract each other 5\. Each type of pure substance has its own type of particle different from other pure substances **[Matter]** - - - [Physical Properties:] Clarity, temperature, density, malleability, luster, ductility, color, conductivity, state (solid/liquid/gas) hardness, melting/boiling point, taste, odor, solubility, texture, **[Chemical properties ]** - - 1. - 2. - QQ\\ **Signs of a chemical change:** 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. **Gas Test:** - - +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Gas** | **Test** | **Result** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | Carbon Dioxide (CO2) | Limewater | Turns clear solution | | | | to | | | - | | | | | cloudy | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Oxygen Gas (O2) | Glowing splint | Fire relights | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Hydrogen gas | Flaming splint | Explosion with a | | | | "pop" sound | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ - Proton: found in the nucleus - Electron: found in orbitals around the nucleus - Neutron: found in the nucleus - Bolded textbook terms and chart p.184 The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in an atom and that defines the element. Ex: Atomic number 20 \-\-- Calcium Ex: Atomic number 16 \-\-- Sulfur Normally an atom will have an equal number of electrons and protons - The number of neutrons in an element can vary. This is called isotopes. Neutrons help to hold the nucleus together. They are neutral and do not feel the electrostatic force, but they provide the strong nuclear force that holds the nucleus together.r Too many or too few neutrons will result in an unstable nucleus. - **Mass Number:** - - **Nuclear Notation:** **Mass Notation: X-A** F-18 F-19 F-20 \#n9 \#n10 \#n11 **Bohr-Rutherford Model of the atom:** - - - - - - - Ex: mg wants to lose 2 electrons Ex: nitrogen wants to gain 3 electrons **In general** An atom with less than 4 valence electrons will want to lose electrons An atom with more than 4 valence electrons will want to gain electrons An atom with 4 valence electrons can gain or lose electrons. - \- Note: some elements will have a full valence orbital of 2 electrons (elements with a low atomic number) **Recall:** Groups are the vertical columns on the periodic table. All elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons. - Group \# \# valence e ---------- ----------------- 1 1 2 2 13 3 14 4 15 5 16 6 17 7 18 8 (except "He") - - - - - **Lewis diagram** - **Ions** - Lose electrons = positive charge called a cation Gain electrons = negative charge called anions Recall: elements want a full valence orbital called the Octet Rule We can predict the ion charge based on the elements group \# - **Naming Ions** - - **Ion symbol** Mg2+ - K+ - Note: most anions will be non-metals **GRADE 10** - - - - - \- ionic compounds usually have a crystal structure **Dissolving:** - - **Electrolytes:** Electrolytes are compounds that break down in ions when they dissolve in water to produce a solution that conducts electricity. Most ionic compounds are electrolytes - **Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds** Recall: Ionic compounds consist of a metal and a nonmetal The name of an ionic compound is the metal (cation) followed by the ion name of the non metal (anion) Subscript only affects the name if the metal is a transition metal Ex: Sodium Chloride Ex: Calcium Oxide Ex: Potassium Sulfide **Determining the ionic Formula:** Ex; Aluminum oxide Al2O3 - ionic formula **Criss-cross Method** Step 1: Al\^3+ O\^2- write down ion symbols Al2O3 Criss cross charge \# to form subscripts Step 3: if needed reduce subscript to lowest ratio Ex Potassium phosphide K\^+ P\^3- Ex: Aluminum nitride All\^3+ N\^3- **Zero-Sum Rule:** - Ex: Al2O3 the charge of the Al\^3+ ions must equal the total charge from the O\^2 ions. 2(+3) +3(-2)=0 We will need to use this determine charges on transition metals **Multiple Ionic Charges: Transition Metals** - - Ex: Fe\^2+ and Fe\^3+ To name these ions we add a roman numeral after the metal name to indicate its charge Ex: Fe \^2+ → Iron (II) ion Fe \^3+ → Iron (III) ion Transition metals can from 2 distinct compounds with the same nonmetal (anion) Ex: FeCl2 →light green FeCl2 → yellow brown **Naming Ionic Compounds with Transition Metals** - - CrF2 Ex: Vanadium (V) Nitride V\^5+ N\^3- V3N5 Naming transition metal ionic compounds - - - ex. - - Therefore, Manganese (IV) Nitride Ex. - - x-3=0 x=3 Ex. - - 1x+3(-2)=0 1x+-6=0 x=6 Note: not all metals in the middle of the periodic table are transition metals Ex. Zinc (Zn) will only form a +2 ion. It is not a transition metal Zn\^2+ 1x+1(-1)=0 1x-1=0 **Polyatomic Ions** A polyatomic ion is an ion that consists of a stable group of several atoms that act together as a single charged particle Ex: carbonate: CO3\^2- (the ion formula) -acts as1 particle Note: you do not need to memorize all of the polyatomic ions. A chart will be provided for evaluations - - \- many polyatomic involve oxygen \- working with and naming polyatomics works just like before \- watch out for the ending of the name Ex: Na3N NaNO2 Sodium Nitr**ite** When more than one of a polyatomic ion is present in a compound we use brackets Calcium Nitrate Ca\^2+ No3\^- Ca(NO3)2 Ex: Be(N02)2 Ex: Pb(HCO3)4 Beryllium nitrite Lead (IV) hydrogen carbonate Ex: Sodium hydroxide Ex: Calcium carbonate Na\^+ OH\^- Ca\^2+CO3\^2- = NaOH = Ca2(CO3)2 = CaCO3 **Molecular Compounds** Recall: ionic compounds form between a metal and a non-metal Molecular compounds are formed between 2 (or more) non-metals - - - - [Properties of molecular compounds:] [Ionic:] - - - - **Diatomic Molecule:** - Remember the 7 diatomic elements HOFBrINCl Namic Molecular Compounds: - - - - Ex: H2O - dihydrogen monoxide H2O2 - dihydrogen dioxide Hydrogen oxide will not be a suitable name because it does not identify which compound you mean Therefore a different naming system is required for molecular compounds and a prefix system is used - **PreFix** **\# of atoms** ------------ ----------------- mono 1 di 2 tri 3 tetra 4 penta 5 hexa 6 hepta 7 octo 8 **Rules/steps for naming molecular compounds** 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Ex: N2O5 Ex: CO Dinitrogen pentoxide Carbon Monoxide Ex: CO2 Ex: Carbon dioxide trisulfur dinitride Ex:PF5 Phosphorus pentafluoride **Chemical formulas for molecular compounds** - - - Ex:diphosphorus tetroxide P2O4 Ex: sulfur hexafluoride SF6 Ex: Xenon Tetrachloride XeCl4 Ex: **Chemical Reactions** - - - - - - **There are 2 main ways of writing a chemical reaction (rxn)** 1. 2. 1. - Ex: magnesium + oxygen \-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--\> magnesium oxide + energy (Reactants) (converts) (products) Watch out for: - - 2. - - - - - Ex: Mg + O (diatomic element) (use criss cross method) Mg + O2 \-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--\> Magnesium oxide Skeletal: Mg+ O2\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--\> MgO Balances: 2Mg(s)+ O2(g) \-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--\> 2MgO(s) Ex: Tin (II) Nitrate + Barium \-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--\> Tin + Barium Nitrate Sn NO3\^- Sn( NO3)2(aq) + Ba(s) \-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--\> Sn(s)+Ba(NO3)2(aq) **Balancing Chemical Equations** Recall: chemical equation is the reaction written out with chemical formulas Observation of matter: -\> for any chemical reaction, the total mass of the reactants must equal the total mass of the products. Mass is NOT lost during a chemical reaction -\> in fact we must have the same number of atoms of each element before and after the chemical reaction. \- this means that we might have to react more than one atom of an element or particle of a molecule Analogy: recipe Ex s'mores 1 marshmallow + 2 chocolate + 2 cookies \-\-\-\--\> 1 s'more Coefficients are the numbers in front of the chemicals in an equation. They show us how many particles of that chemical are needed for the reaction. -\> in chemistry we don\'t write coefficients of 1. Ex: synthesis of water Ex: combustion of methane CH4 + 2O2 \-\-\-\-\--\> 2H2O + CO2 Things to note: \-\--\> when balancing an equation (adding the coefficients) you can NEVER EVER change the subscripts on the formulas \-\--\> coefficients multiply all atoms in the particle \-\--\> If needed reduce your coefficients by dividing by the greatest common factor \-\--\> Skeletal equation: unbalanced chemical reaction \-\--\> balances equation: uses coefficients to obey the law of conservation of mass **Steps for balancing a chemical equation:** 1. -\> use the subscripts 2. 3. 4. Ex: HF + Mg \-\-\--\> MgF2 + H2 2 x H H 2 ------- ------ 2 x F F 2 1 Mg Mg 1 Ex: NaCl + Al2O3 \-\-\--\> ALCl3 + Na2O 1 Na Na 2 ------ ------ 1 Cl Cl 3 2 Al Al 1 3 O O 1 New table Ex: 6 NaCl + Al2O3 \-\-\--\> 2 ALCl3 + 3 Na2O 6 Na Na 6 ------ ------ 6 Cl Cl 6 2 Al Al 2 3 O O 3 \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Ex: Ca(NO3)2 + Na \-\-\--\> NaNO3 + Ca 1 Ca Ca 1 ------ ------ 2 N N 1 6 O O 3 1 Na Na 1 New table Ex: Ca(NO3)2 + 2 Na \-\-\--\> 2 NaNO3 + Ca 1 Ca Ca 1 ------ ------ 2 N N 2 6 O O 6 2 Na Na 2 Note: as an option you can treat polyatomics as one particle in the chart if the same one appears on both sides of the equation Ex: Magnesium hydroxide reacts with Lithium chloride to form Lithium hydroxide and magnesium chloride. Word Equation: Magnesium hydroxide + lithium chloride \-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--\> lithium hydroxide + Magnesium chloride Mg(OH)2 + 2LiCl ---\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--\> 2LiOH + MgCl2 Mg 1 Mg 1 ------ ------ OH 2 OH 2 Li 2 Li 2 Cl 2 Cl 2 Some reactions pose a bit more of a challenge. Ex: The complete combustion of butane. Word Equation: Butane + oxygen\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--\>carbon dioxide + water Skeletal ---- 2C4H10 + 13O2 ---\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--\> 8CO2 + 10H2O C 8 C 8 ------ ------ H 20 H 20 O 26 O 26 **Type of chemical reactions** There are 4 main types of chemical reactions 1. 2. General pattern AB \-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--\> A + B Ex Hydrogen peroxide \-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--\> oxygen + water 2H2O2 \-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--\> O2 + 2H2O Note: Decomposition Reactions Often need to absorb energy to get started. However, they can also release a lot of energy, more than enough energy to compensate for the energy required to get going. Ex: dynamite ( energy in vs.energy out) 3. Ex: 2NaCl + F2 \-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--\> 2NaF + Cl2 Single displacement reactions are often used in mining and removing a desired element from a compound 4. Ex: lead (ll) nitrate + potassium iodide \-\-\--\> Lead (ll) iodide + Potassium nitrate Pb2+ NO3- K+ I- Pb3+I- K+ NO3- Double displacement reactions will usually form from the reactions of 2 aqueous solution (dissolved in water) and one of the products will form a precipitate ( the other stays in solution) P.239 \#1-4 P.243\#2-4 Demo: Ex: Iron (lll) oxide + Aluminum \-\-\-\-\-\-\--\> aluminum oxide + Iron **Combustion and Corrosion** Recall: 1. 2. 3. 4. **Combustion** Combustion notes: Combustion is the rapid reaction with oxygen to produce an oxide (something bonded with oxygen) and energy -\> burning Hydrocarbon: compound containing Hydrogen and Carbon Ex: Propane, C3H8 -\> hydrocarbons are usually very combustible Complete combustion: -\> reaction of hydrocarbon with oxygen which produces CO2 and H2O and energy-\> all of the hydrocarbon gets reacted -\> must have lots of oxygen present -\> Co2 is a greenhouse gas Ex: methane, CH4 In general : CH + O2 ---\--\> CO2 + H2O Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons -\> occurs when oxygen supply is limited -\> produces: CO2, H2O, Carbon (soot), and CO (carbon monoxide) -\> orange flame is seen Ex -\> Butane C4H10(g) + 5O2(g) ---\> C(8) +2CO(g) + 5H2O(g) + CO(g) + energy Carbon monoxide is odorless, colorless and toxic gas -\> produces by incomplete combustion in confined spaces -\> poorly ventilated furnace -\> car running in garage Soot (carbon): -\> causes pollution and wastes energy -\> causes: poorly maintained engines and forest fire Combustion of elements: -\> elements will react with oxygen to produce oxides and energy Ex: 2Mg+O2 \-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--\> 2MgO In general: element + oxygen \-\-\-\-\-\--\> oxide \-\--\> these are synthesis reactions combustion reactions involving elements are also synthesis reactions: they follow the pattern A + B → AB. P. 251 \# 2-5 Combustion of hydrogen : 2H2(g) + O2(g) \-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--\> 2H2O(g) + energy Synthesis reaction The reverse rxn is a decomposition rxn Energy + 2H20 \-\-\-\-\-\--\> 2H2(g) + O2(g) → Using hydrogen gas a an energy source **Pro** **Cons** ------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- Burns cleanly Producing H requires energy Produces water Hydrogen fuel cells are very expensive Hydrogen can be produced from water Hydrogen is very explosive Ex: phosphorus used in matches P4(s) + 5O2(g) ---\> P4O10(g) + energy The terms corrosion and rusting are often used interchangeably. Strictly speaking, corrosion is a general term that can be applied to any metal that reacts with chemicals in the environment. Rusting, however, refers specifically to the corrosion of metals that contain iron, such as steel. Gold and Platinum are the expectations Corrosion: is the breakdown of a metal from the chemical reactions of the metal in the environment. -\> beneficial corrosion Ex: Aluminum oxide, Al2O3, is very strong Copper oxide is a pale green color and is also very strong -\> weather proof for 75 years -\> rust corrosion of iron (fe) -\> reddish brown color -\> flaky - not strong -\> complex reaction of iron with: air, water, and electrolytes (ionic compounds - salts) + acidity and mechanical stress -\> steel (alloy consisting of iron) if rust is away from water (+ oxygen) -\> E;ectrolytes: speed up corrosion but doesn\'t actually cause it -\> road salt and ocean spray will cause fast corrosion Preventing corrosion -\> 3 ways 1. 2\) materials: making items out of more corrosion resistant materials 3\) galvanizing: steel covered with zinc **Acids and Bases** Chemical formulas of acids: -\> acids will release at least 1 H+ ions when dissolved in water. -\> it is the H+ ion that gives acids their properties (hydrogen that has lost an electron) Therefore it has no electrons left An H+ ion is usually just a proton it would be a proton and a neutron Most acids will have chemical formulas that begin with hydrogen (H) acids that will typically show their properties once they are dissolved in water. -\> aqueous Ex:: hydrochloric acid: Properties of acids: 1. 2. 2 H H 2 ------ ------ 2 Cl Cl 2 Zn1 Zn 1 3. Ex: vinegar + baking soda Acetic acid + sodium hydrogen carbonate ---\--\> water + carbon dioxide + sodium acetate Na 1 Na 1 ------ ------ C 3 C 3 H 5 H 5 O 5 O 5 Already balanced 4. 1. Name: hydro \_\_\_ic acid ----\> stem of other element name HCI(aq): hydrochloric acid HF(aq): hydrofluoric acid H2S(aq) hydrosulfuric acid 2. Name: \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ic acid ----\> Stem of polyatomic element (not oxygen) Ex: HNO3(aq) Nitric acid H3PO4(aq) Phosphoric acid H2SO4(aq) Sulfuric acid Formulas: 1. 2. - - - - **Properties of bases** 1. 2. Ex: Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 (s) \-\--\> Ca\^2(aq) + 2OH\^-(aq) 3. **Acids-Base indicators:** → chemicals that change color when placed in acidic or basic (alkaline) solutions → used to classify the solution as acidic or basic → some can be used to determine how strong the acid or base is. Ex: Litmus paper → in an acid it will turn red → in a base it will turn blue Ex: Phenolphthalein → is an acid it is colorless (clear) → in a base it is pink Other indicators listed in table 3 on p.270 -\> chat on p.271 of some acids and bases and their use **pH scale** PH is a measure of how basic ( alkaline) or acidic a solution is. -\>aqueous → pH: potential of Hydrogen → looks at the amount of H+ ions present in a solution →typical range of pH values is 0 to 14 but the scale does extend beyond those values Ex: battery acid in a car: pH = 0 → very strong acid - Ex: industrial drain cleaner: pH = 14→ very strong base \*Note : most stock solutions in the school would have a -ve pH if they are an acid, or pH \> 14 if they are a base. →scale is logarithmic and therefore a change of pH by 1 is a change in its strength by a factor of 10. → a pH of 7 is neutral Ex: pure water → see figure 2 p.272 for a pH scale diagram → this scale is temperature depended and is set for 25 degrees celsius **H+ ions:** → Recall: H+ ions is just a proton → pH is a measure of (concentration) of H+ ions →how many/volume → in water acid will dissolve and release H+ ion Ex: sulfuric acid H+ SO42- H2SO4(aq) \-\-\-\-\--\> 2 H(aq) + SO42-(aq) →but bases dont release H+ ions... they release hydroxide ions (OH-) or carbonate (CO3)2- →the OH- ion will react with the water and alter the amount of OH+ ions that would naturally be found in water. It will lower the concentration of H+ ions, thus raising the pH Water H2O \-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--\> H+(aq)+ OH-(aq) this reaction only happens a little bit, but it is still enough to measure a pH=7 The OH- released by a base will react with the natural H+ from the water to produce more water. This change the H+ concentration Note: water is neutral because it produces equal amount of the H+ and OH+ ions Carbonate reacts with water to produce the OH- ion found in bases. Ex: sodium carbonate and water Na1+ (CO3)2- 0 7 14 Strong acid pure water strong base High concentration of H+ ions equal amounts of H+ low concentration of H+ ions Low amount of OH- ions and OH- High amount of OH- ions Uses of pH: soil : different pHs are good for different plants Ex: beans pH 7-10 Com pH 5-6 Potatoes pH \ 2NO(g) 2NO + O2(g) → 2NO2(g) 3NO2(g) + H2O (l) → 2HNO3(aq) + NO(g) → nitric acid Impact on Environment: →Aquatic ecosystems: →can only tolerate small change in pH →affect the food chain → buffering capacity: ability to resist pH changes → soil and lakes with limestone have a buffer capacity -\>CaCO3 CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) ---\-\--\> CaSO4(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) -\> eventually the limestone will get used up -\> Soil systems: -\> lowers pH -\> removes metal ions from the soil -\> washes into waterways -\> Forests -\> acids weaken trees -\> more disease, weaker in high winds and weaker in cold weather -\> food chain and habitat is affected Economic impact → farming and food product is more costly → lumber (wood) costs more → fishing costs increase → damages: → steel structures are weaker and have a shorter lifetime → limestone buildings →stone monuments Clean-up: →lower sulfur fuels →remove sulfur from industry emission ( scrubbers) → electric vehicles and lowering transportation pollution → stricter laws on emission in general P.290 \#1, 3-6, 11-13 Topic reviewer Types of reactions - - - - -\> combustion -complete combustion of hydrocarbons -\> produces CO2 and water \- incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons -\> produces: CO,CO, water and soot (C(6)) -\> combustion of metals: synthesis reaction -\> all are reactions with O2 -\> corrosion -\> bunsen burners -\> properties of acids -\> properties of bases -\> Naming acids: binar (HCI(aq)) and oxy (HClO3(aq)) -\> Acid-base indicators -\> pH scale -\> application of pH -\> Neatrailization of rxns -\> products: water + ionic compound (salt) -\> double displacement -\> applications -\> Acid rain (precipitation) -\> SO2 and nitrates (NO or NO2) -\> causes -\> rxn pathways -\> environmental impacts **BIOLOGY** **Cell Theory and Organelles** Abiotic vs Biotic Living things or things that come from living things are called biotic and non-living things are abiotic Cells -\> **Cells** -\>Cells are the basic unit of life -\>building blocks of organisms -\> Organisms comprise different types of cells (Ex: nerve, muscle, brain, skin\...) The human body is made up of 100 trillion cells -\> Different organisms (plants and animals) have different cells, however, they have similar characteristics and structures. -\> Many of these structures are known as organelles Cell Theory: -\> 4 postulates 1\. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells 2\. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in all organisms 3\. All cells come from previously existing cells 4\. The activity of an entire organism depends on the total activity of its independent cells. **Characteristics of Living Things:** -\> There are 7 things that something must have to be considered alive 1\. Living things use energy 2\. Living things must grow 3\. Living things must be able to reproduce 4\. Living things must have smaller parts coming together to make the whole 5\. Living things must respond to a stimuli 6\. Living things must maintain homeostasis -\> stable conditions for survival 7\. Living things must adapt to their environment **Organelles** Organelles are the structures inside of a cell that work together to make the cell function -\> Like organs in the human body, each perform a specific function -\> Most organelles are bound by membranes which control what can get in and out of them **Important Parts of the Cell that aren't organelles:** Cytoplasm: the jelly-like substance that the organelles float on\ -\> plays a supporting role for the cell Chromatin: The uncoiled part of the DNA that floats around in the nucleus. These strands of DNA give instructions to the cell for everyday life as well as cell replication Ribosomes: Sometimes found around the cytoplasm but is mostly attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. They read instructions from the DNA to make proteins. \*Proteins are used to build muscles or structure. **Organelles both plants and animals have:** Cell membrane: keeps the organelles contained and allows certain things to pass in and outside of the cell -\> Selectively Permeable Nucleus: Double-layered membrane organelle that protects and contains the contents of the genetic material and the nucleolus Nuclear membrane: Double-layered membrane that incloses the genetic material (\*around the nucleus) Nucleolus: Not bound by its membrane. Hidden in a dark area of the nucleus. Produces ribosomes. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Helps send information and nutrients to the other parts of the cell. It has a folded membrane and those materials flow around the canals to the other parts of the cell: Rough ER: Has ribosomes over it Smooth ER: produces lipids (fats) and steroids (hormones) Gogli Bodies: Large stacked shaped Organelle that bud off into smaller pieces and they transfer things in and out of the cell Mitochondria: The Powerhouse of the cell that creates energy by breaking down glucose. -\> double membrane -\> has its own genetic info in animal cells Vacuoles: Fluid-filled sacs that serve as storage for a variety of materials and aids in digestion -\> provides turgor pressure in plants -\> firmness for plants **Organelles only found in animal cells:** Lysosomes: Act as the last line of defense for animal cells. They send out chemicals that breaks things down and or digests them. In some cases, they can recycle those materials. Centrioles: Produce spindle fibers that help in cell division by pulling the cell apart **Organelles only found in plant cells:** Cell wall: Rigid structure outside of the cell membrane. Provides structure to the plant and is made of cellulose. Chloroplast: Contains chlorophyll which makes plants green. Photosynthesis occurs here. They contain their own genetic information and they are found near the outside of cells. \*note: most cells have folds to increase their surface area. Maximizes workspace. Classification of Cells: Eukaryote: cells that have a nucleus. Procaryote: cells that do NOT have a nucleus -\> genetic info floats in the cytoplasm Ex. Bacteria Why does cell division occur: 1. 2. 3. A cell stays in interphase when: 1\. Signals from its surroundings indicate the time is not right 2\. Not enough nutrients for growth 3\. DNA has not been replicated yet 4\. DNA is damaged Phases of Mitosis Prophase: Nuclear membrane begins to dissolve -\> Replicated chromatin begins to coil and form an X shape called chromosomes. -\> can be seen with a microscope Centrioles begin to move to opposite ends of the cell Metaphase: Spindle fibres attach to the centromeres (middle of chromosomes; think bundles) Spindle fibres move chromosomes in a line in the middle of the cell Anaphase: Spindle fibres shorten and contract -\> Spindle fibers pull apart chromosomes at the centromere Chromosomes get split in half, each half is called either chromatin or daughter chromosome. Telophase: Nuclear membranes begin to reform around each set of chromatids Cells appear to have 2 nuclei Chromatids reach opposite ends of the cell Chromatids begin to uncoil to form chromatin **Cancer: A Group of diseases that grow and divide without control.** Characteristics: Cells do not stay in interphase Not infectious Uncontrollable cell growth and division which creates a mass of cells called a tumor Can be caused by the environment or chemicals (carcinogens) Some types may be hereditary Caused by a change in the DNA that controls cell division Happens to a wide variety of organisms 3 main disruptions occur: 1\. Messages from the nucleus or surrounding cells to stop growing/ dividing are NOT heard by the cancer cell 2\. Cell checkpoints fail to ID a problem 3\. Cell checkpoint fails to kill the cell (cell death is called apoptosis) 2 types of tumors: 1\. Benign: -\> NOT cancerous -\> the size of the mass of cells may impact function of surrounding cells 2\. malignant: -\> IS cancerous -\> may destroy nearby tissues -\> interferes with function of nearby cells -\> cells may break away and form secondary tumor in other locations in the body - \> Metastasis Diagnosing Cancer: (imaging) -\> X-rays: viewing bones and lungs -\> CT scan (CAT): 3D x-ray -\> Ultrasounds: images of soft tissue -\> Mammograms: breast cancer -\> Endoscopy: fibre optic camera -\> Nuclear imaging Treatments: -\> Surgery: physical removal of the tumor -\> radiation: kills cancer cells easier than healthy tissue -\> chemotherapy: drug that attacks rapidly dividing cells **Specialized Cells:** Cells that have different physical characteristics to help perform specific functions Multicellular organisms need specialized cells to preform all the functions required for the organism to survive -\> supports different systems in the organism -\> provides cells a focus for function Cellular Differentiation: The process by which a cell becomes specialized to preform a specific function Stem Cells-\> are undifferentiated cells that can become specialized cells 1. 2. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. → Liver produces bile which breaks down fat, and breaks down toxins for the body. → Pancreas produces insulin, and it regulates the concentration of glucose. → Gallbladder stores bile from the liver. → During a meal, bile flows directly from the liver to the small intestine. While not eating, bile moves from the liver to be stored in the gallbladder. Heartburn: occurs when acidic fluid from the stomach backs up into the esophagus. The protective mucus doesn't exist in your esophagus. Ulcers: sores in stomach / intestine that weaken the mucus layer, allowing the acidic fluids to touch the outer lining. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Red Blood Cells: Carry O2/CO2 -\> no nucleus White Blood Cells: has nucleus -\>Fight diseases -\>Make up less than 1% blood volume Platelets: Help blood clot -\>Tiny bits of cells Plasma: Liquid part Allows other 3 components to move around Blood flows through blood vessels. It's a type of connective tissue that circulates throughout your body. Humans have 4 different blood types. A, B, AB, and O. These levels indicate the type of blood marker is on the surface of these blood cells. They are called Antigens. It helps identify what is self vs non-self 1. → Combination of the Muscular System and Skeletal System Muscular System: 1. 2. 3. → many canals that contain nerves and blood vessels Ligaments → hold bones together at the joint (bone to bone) Cartilage → provides strong, flexible, low-friction support. Osteoporosis: loss of bone tissue (decrease bone density). Increases risk of bone fractures. 2. → Includes the central nervous system (Brain and Spinal Cord), peripheral nervous system (tissue made up of neurons, two way flow of information). 1. 2. 3. CNS → 2 parts → Brain (controls how we think, move, learn, etc..), and Spinal Cord (carries messages between the brain and the PNS) PNS → Network of nerves that carries messages to the CNS 1. 2. 3. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. **Diseases of the Respiratory System:** 1. 2. 3. **Not in Depth Systems**: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. **OPTICS** **Light** Light is a wave (or photon) that is a form of radiation. All types of light make up the electromagnetic spectrum. The [lower] the energy on the electromagnetic spectrum, the [longer] the wavelength + [lower] frequency, and vice versa. Types of electromagnetic waves: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. White Light is a combination of all visible light. A prism will split white light into the visible colour spectrum. **Light Rays:** Light rays -\> Light always travels in straight lines. Definitions: 1\) Incident light ray: light that leaves the source. 2\) Mirror: Any polished surface that can reflect light 3\) Reflected light ray: light that bounces off a surface (mirror) 4\) Image: Reproduction of an object using light In flat-plane mirrors, images appear to be laterally inverted. S.A.L.T Size: the size of the image compared to the object Attitude: is the image upright or inverted Location: image distance from the mirror Type: virtual image: behind mirror real image: light rays come together at the image. **Sources of Light** -\> Luminous: produces its light -\> Non-luminous: doesn't produce its light, but reflects light 7 Types of Light 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. **Lasers** -\> Stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation -\> Most regular light sources emit various light wavelengths in all directions. -\> Lasers produce light in one direction with only one wavelength **Refraction** -\> Light rays change direction as they travel from one medium (material) into another -\> This is caused by the fact that light travels at different speeds in different materials. *(c in water = 2.26x10^8^ m/s, c in acrylic = 1.76x10^8^ m/s, c in vacuum of space = 3.00 x 10^8^m/s)* The angle of incidence: i, ∠i or θ~i~ The angle of refraction: R, ∠R, or θ~R~ -\> When light travels from a fast medium to a slow medium (n) the light bends towards the normal line. -\> Light will bend away from the normal line when it travels from a slow medium to a fast medium. **Index of refraction:** The index of refraction for a medium is the ratio of the speed of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in the medium. [\$n\\ = \\ \\frac{c}{v}\$]{.math.inline} [\$n\\ = \\ \\frac{\\sin\\theta\_{i}}{\\sin\\theta\_{R}}\$]{.math.inline} The bigger the value of n, the slower the light travels in that medium. =\> smaller angle of refraction. **Concave Mirrors** The caved side of a concave mirror is reflective. Parts of Concave Mirror Images: C: Center of curvature -\> the center of the sphere whose surface has been used to make the mirror. p.a: Principal Axis -\> The line through the center of curvature and the midpoint of the mirror V: Vertex -\> The point where the principal axis and the mirror meet. F: Focus -\> located halfway between the center of curvature and the vertex. Rays parallel to the principal axis will reflect off the mirror and converge at the focal point. Concave mirrors can also be called converging mirrors. **3 Reflection Rules:** 1. 2. 3. The point where the rays intersect is where the image will form. 5 Cases: 1. S: Smaller\ A: Inverted\ L: Between C and F\ T: Real 2. S: Same size\ A: Inverted\ L: At C\ T: Real 3. S: Larger\ A: Inverted\ L: Beyond C\ T: Real 4. 5. S: Bigger\ A: Upright\ L: Behind the Mirror T: Virtual **Converging Lenses** Lenses cause light to change direction by the process of refraction. The lens is thickest in the middle. Incident rays that are parallel to the p.a. will converge to a single point after they refract as they travel through the lens. Parts of the images in converging lenses: Optical Center (O): the point where the p.a. meets the middle of the lens. Focus (F): the point on the p.a. where parallel rays converge after they pass through the lens. Secondary Focus (F', F Prime): The point on the p.a. that is on the same side of the lens as the incident rays and the same distance away as the focus. 2F and 2F': twice the distance of F and F' Emergent Ray: the refracted ray that exits the lens. 3 tools to find images: 1. 2. 3. 5 Cases: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. **Lens Equations** Terminology: d~o~ = distance of the object from the optical center. f = focal length: distance from the optical center to F (or F') d~i~ = distance from the optical center to the image. h~o~ = height of the object h~i~ = height of the image **Thin Lens Equation** [\$\\frac{1}{d\_{o}} + \\frac{1}{d\_{i}} = \\frac{1}{f}\$]{.math.inline} This equation can be used for converging and diverging lenses. **Sign Convention**: -\> d~o~ is always positive -\> d~i~ is positive for real images and negative for virtual images -\> f is positive for converging lenses and negative for diverging lenses. **Magnification Equation:** [\$M\\ = \\ \\frac{h\_{i}}{h\_{o}} = \\ - \\frac{d\_{i}}{d\_{o}}\$]{.math.inline} All of the previous sign conventions apply, plus: -\> h~o~ and h~i~ are positive if the object is upright and negative if inverted -\> M is positive if the image is upright and negative if it is inverted -\> M is dimensionless (no units) Also, if M \> 1 then the image is bigger than the object If M \< 1 then the image is smaller than the object If M = 1 it is the same size as the object **Application of Optics** Cameras use lenses to focus light onto a picture of CCD. Eyes work like cameras. Problems with eyesight: Farsightedness -\> The eye focuses behind the retina. Nearsightedness -\> The eye focuses in front of the retina, not on it. **Refraction Phenomena:** 1. 2. 3. 4. **CLIMATE CHANGE** Weather: current conditions in the atmosphere Ex: temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind -weather changes over a short period of time (day or week) -climate is the average weather in a region over a long period of time (past 30 years) -\> The climate of a region determines the types of [plants] and [animals] that live there -\> Climate is what you expect to get, but weather is what you actually get Climate in a region shouldnt change very much over a long period of time **Climate zones:** Based on: temperature, precipitation, plant and animal communities **Ecoregions:** Based on: climate, plants and animals, human factors, soil, land forms **Factors affecting climate change:** Near large bodies of water -\> Distance from the equator (latitude) -\> Ocean and air currents -\> Land formations -\> Height above sea level **Suns energy:** The sun is the source of all energy on the planet Reflected light: 30% Absorbed light: 70% -\> The absorbed light is then re-radiated as infrared light as a lower energy -\> The intensity of the light depends on where you live **The Greenhouse Effect:** The greenhouse effect is a natural process where gases and clouds absorb infrared radiation. -\> re-radiate the radiation in all directions -\> some re-radiated energy returns to earth -\> without the greenhouse effect earth\'s average temperature is -18 degrees celsuis -\> with the greenhouse effect earth\'s average temperature is 15 degrees celsuis Larger greenhouse effect = warmer temperatures **Greenhouse Gases:** -\> gases in the atmosphere that are made up of 2 different elements Ex: CO2, CH4, N20, H20 **1) CO2** -\> Carbon dioxide makes up 0.038% of the atmosphere -\> Before industry: 280 ppm (parts per million) -\> After industry: 385 ppm -\> Oceans and living things are important carbon sinks Feedback loop: (builds on itself)  **2) H2O:** -\> Water makes up 2 thirds of the greenhouse effect **3) CH4** -\> Methane is 23x more effective as a greenhouse gas than CO2 -\> Naturally from plants and animals -\> Industry is making this worse **4) N2O:** -\> 300x more effective as a greenhouse gas than CO2 -\> We are increasing the amount of N20 **Anthropogenic Greenhouse Gases:** -\> Human made greenhouse gases **1) Carbon dioxide:** -\> Affecting the most -\> Burning fossil fuels(gas) -\> cutting down forests which are carbon sinks **2) Methane:** -\> Farming -\> Coal mining -\> Deforestation **3) Dinitrogen monoxide:** -\> Fertilizers -\> Livestock feed **4) CFC\'s:** -\> No natural sources -\> refrigeration agents -\> currently getting better - Montreal protocol **5) Water:** -\> Industry -\> Irrigation -\> Power Plants **Evidence Of climate change** 1. -\> Increase of 0.6 degrees celsius since 1970 -\> In Canada a 1 degree rise in the last 55 years -\> 2.5 degrees celsius increase in parts of the Yukon 2. -\> Glaciers are shrinking -\> Greenland\'s ice is melting twice as fast in the past 3. -\> Land ice vs. ocean ice (floating) ice -\> Land ice will increase ocean levels whereas ocean ice will not -\> Flooding of low-lying areas 4. -\> Heat waves -\> Increased frequency of storms 5. -\> Some areas get more rain, while some get less -\> In Canada: more rain and less snow 6. -\> In Canada: Snow comes later and leaves earlier -\> Less cold days worldwide -\> Longer growing seasons -\> Messes up food changes 7. -\> Earlier breeding -\> Species migrating towards the poles