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BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY TOPIC 1.1 : BIOLOGY (Grade 8) ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━ IN GREEK… ➔ “Study of Life” ➔ Bio = “Bios” (life) ➔ Logy = “Logos” (study) MAIN BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY 1....

BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY TOPIC 1.1 : BIOLOGY (Grade 8) ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━ IN GREEK… ➔ “Study of Life” ➔ Bio = “Bios” (life) ➔ Logy = “Logos” (study) MAIN BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY 1. Botany (Study of Plants) Plant Ecology 1. Microbiology Plant Anatomy Study of the biology of microscopic organisms. Plant Physiology REAL LIFE CASE STUDY: Hand hygiene and disease prevention Plant Genetics Plant Cell Biology 2. Zoology (Study of Animals) Comparative Anatomy PEOPLE INVOLVED: Animal Physiology Biotechnologist Entomology Food Technologist Mammalogy Mycologist Paleontology Parasitologist 3. Medical Science (Study of Human Health) 2. Taxonomy Science of naming, describing, Bioengineering identifying, and classifying organisms. REAL-LIFE CASE STUDY: Biodiversity Biomedicine conservation and species identification Toxicology Microbiology Forensic Science SUBJECT AREAS IN BIOLOGY  system and muscle fatigue PEOPLE INVOLVED: Medical Technician PEOPLE INVOLVED: Pharmacist Research Scientist Physical Therapist Dentist Biology Teacher Crime Forensics Horticulturist 3. Anatomy and Morphology 5. Genetics Study of the detailed structure and internal organs. Study of inheritance of heredity, REAL-LIFE CASE STUDY: Insect characters, and variations. morphology and camouflage REAL-LIFE CASE STUDY: Inherited traits and family studies PEOPLE INVOLVED: PEOPLE INVOLVED: Oncologist Biotech Sales Fitness Trainer Surgical Nurse Clinical Research Coordinator Nutritionist Forensic Scientist 4. Physiology Epidemiologist Study of the different types of body functions and processes. 6. Evolution REAL-LIFE CASE STUDY: Muscular Study of the origin and differentiation  of different kinds of organisms. bacteria REAL-LIFE CASE STUDY: Antibiotic resistance in Veterinarian Resource Management 8. Cytology Study of the structure and function of cells. REAL-LIFE CASE STUDY: Cancer and cell division PEOPLE INVOLVED: Conservationist Wildlife Researcher Zookeeper Hatchery Manager PEOPLE INVOLVED: Cytotechnologist 7. Ecology Study of the environment and the Clinical Phone Support Specialist interrelationships of organisms in it. Lab Assistant REAL-LIFE CASE STUDY: Climate change and species distribution 9. Embryology Study of the growth and development of new organisms. REAL-LIFE CASE STUDY: Human fetal development and prenatal care PEOPLE INVOLVED: PEOPLE INVOLVED: OB Gyne Environmental Analyst Laboratory Manager AquaCulturist Associate Researcher  Embryologist WHERE CAN BIOLOGY TAKE YOU? 10. Paleontology 1. Research Study of fossils of living things and 2. Education their distribution in time. 3. Health Care REAL-LIFE CASE STUDY: Mass 4. Forensic Science 5. Environmental Management and extinctions and fossil evidence Conservation 6. Biotechnology PEOPLE INVOLVED: IMPORTANCE OF BIOLOGY Geological Surveyor Museum Curator 1. Finding cure for diseases Prospector University Professor 2. Helps students understand the basic 11. Biological Engineering needs and functions of organisms Deals with biomolecular and molecular 3. Important in preserving the environment process, product design, and sustainability and analysis of 4. People can manage environmental biological systems. problems better REAL-LIFE CASE STUDY: Genetically 5. Develop technologies Modified Organisms (GMOs) and crop improvement 6. Improve agriculture 7. Improved quality and production of food 8. Appreciate the variety of living things PEOPLE INVOLVED: Biomedical Scientist Biotechnologist Rehabilitation Engineer Administrative Officer COMMON BIOLOGICAL TOOLS TOPIC 1.2 : BIOLOGY (Grade 8) ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━ WHAT ARE THE COMMON BIOLOGICAL TOOLS 1. Safety goggles 9. Crucibles Used for heating and high direct heat 10. Mortar and pestle Used for grinding substances 11. Funnels Used for safety transfer substances 12. Filter paper Used to separate fine particles of 2. Safety gloves substances 13. Watch glass A round concave glass dish used for evaporation 3. Laboratory gown 14. Litmus paper A strip of paper that is chemically treated with a dye named litmus to determine whether a solution is acid or basic 15. Bunsen burner 4. Beaker Connected to a flammable gas source for An open cylindrical container with a pouring heating lip to measure, mix, and prepare liquids 16. Mesh gauze Absorbs and spreads the heat of flame and keeps 5. Erlenmeyer flask glassware from cracking and breaking Has a rounded body and a narrow neck 17. Tripod used for mixing by swirling Three-legged platform used for support 6. Florence flasks 18. Ring stand, rings, and clamps Has a round bottom, and a long neck A base or pole of set-up for experimenting that used for boiling holds glassware in place for heating or 7. Graduated cylinder evaporating. A narrow, cylindrical container used to 19. Reagent bottles precisely measure the volume of liquids Used to store, transport, and view acids and 8. Test tubes bases A hollow cylinder of thin glass with one end 20. Crucible tongs closed used for experiments and comparison 21. Beaker tongs 22. Test tube holder 23. Pipette approaches Used to measure out small amounts of 35. Forceps liquids Used to grab small things 24. Dropper 36. Scissors 25. Spatula Used for cutting during dissections 37. Probe Used to scoop chemical powders 26. Triple beam balance Used for pointing, moving, or pushing during Measures the mass of an object dissection 27. Meter stick Measures length 28. Thermometer Measures temperature 38. Pins 29. Stir rod Used for pinning or holding down an object to a A piece of laboratory equipment used to mix dissection pan during dissection chemicals and liquids 39. Centrifuge Used to separate particles suspended in a liquid 40. Slides and cover slip 30. Petri dish A rectangular slide used for specimens to be Used for culture observed placed with cover slips that holds it in 31. Evaporating place dish 41. Magnifying glass Separates solid and liquid from a solution A lens that produces an enlarged image of an 32. Dissecting pan object Used to place a specimen when conducting a dissection 42. Microscope 33. Dissecting kit An optical instrument having a magnifying lens or 34. Scalpel a combination for inspecting objects too small to be Used for making skin incisions, tissue seen by the unaided eye dissections, and a variety if surgical MICROSCOPE TOPIC 1.3 : BIOLOGY (Grade 8) ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━ MICROSCOPE ➔ A tool used to enlarge the image of an object from its original size HISTORY OF MICROSCOPE ➔ Operated on two basic principles: Resolution: ability to make the specimen visible, ➔ Hans Lippershey Magnification: ability to magnify or enlarge the ➔ Zaccharius Janssen image size of the specimen Made the first compound microscope ➔ Galileo Galilei 4. Revolving nosepiece Made a microscope that could be focused Holds two or more objective lens and can be ➔ Anton Van Leeuwenhoek rotated easily to change powers First to see bacteria, yeast, blood cells, and life in ➔ Dust shield pond water 5. Stage Where slides are placed Made over 500 simple “microscopes” 6. Stage clip Specimens were mounted on the sharp point Holds the slide in place that sticks up in front of the lens 7. Condenser A set of lenses between the mirror and the large TYPES OF MICROSCOPE stage that concentrated light rays on the ➔ Light microscope specimen Generates true color views of living and uses 8. Iris diaphragm visible light Regulates the amount of light necessary to obtain ➔ Electron microscope a clearer view of the object Has a greater magnification and resolution and 9. Mirror uses an electron beam Regulates the amount of light necessary to obtain a clearer view of the object 10. Base PARTS OF A MICROSCOPE Supports the microscope 1. Fine adjustment knob Used in changing small amounts of focus 11. Inclination joint, pillar, base 2. Coarse adjustment knob PROPER WAY OF HANDLING A MICROSCOPE Used in making large changes in focus Moves the body tube up and down 1. Always use two hands. Grasp the arm with one 3. Objective lens hand and place the other hand under the base for Major lenses used for specimen variation support. ➔ LPO: Yellow, 10x objective power, 10x eyepiece 2. Make sure the microscope is not plugged in before lens power, 100x power of magnification moving it. ➔ SCANNING: Red, 4x objective power, 10x 3. If immersion oil is to be used, make sure to clean eyepiece lens power, 40x power of magnification the immersion oil lens thoroughly after use. ➔ HPO: Blue, 40x objective power, 10x eyepiece 4. Keeping your microscope clean, especially the lens power, 400x power of magnification optics, will also ensure that it lasts longer. ➔ Calculating Total Magnification LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION TOPIC 1.4: BIOLOGY (Grade 8) ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━ HCI - Hydrogen Chloride, CI2 - Chlorine ATOMS - simplest form of an element. Organelles - Made up of: - miniature organs Protons (+ charge) - specialized structure that perform Electrons (- charge) important cellular functions within Neutrons (no charge) the cells. - has one or more specific job to MOLECULES perform. - subcellular structure - two or more atoms combined or joined - Ex: Mitochondria, Nucleus, together through chemical bonding. Lysosome, Cytoplasm - Ex: CO2 - Carbon Dioxide, H2O - Water, CH4 - Methane, NaCI - Sodium Chloride, Cells - basic unit of life Aside from being… - has two classifications: - eukaryotes, multicellular, heterotrophic 1. Prokaryotes - single-celled; NO nucleus organism 2. Eukaryotes - cells that have nucleus - Ex: - ability to use language Stem cells, Blood cells, Skin cells, Muscle - walking uprightly cells - extraordinary brain We are also… Tissues - the only mammals that have this specific - group of similar cells that perform a dopaminergic cell type. particular function. - Four Major Types: - 1. Nerve 2. Muscle 3. Epithelial 4. Connective - the only animals that engages in long-term planning. Organs - group of tissues that work together to perform closely Community related functions. - different populations that live together in a - Ex: Liver, Stomach, Heart, Kidney defined area. Organ System Ecosystem - work together to perform specific and - group of all organisms thar live in a particular common functions. place, together with their nonliving environment. - Ex: Digestive, Respiratory, Integumentary Organism Biome - any living creature - group of ecosystems that have the same - unicellular and multicellular climate and similar dominant communities. - adhere and meet all characteristics of life. - Ex: Taiga, Desert, Grassland, Rainforest - Ex: Humans, bacterias, plants, animals Biosphere Population - part of Earth where life - group of individuals of the same species esists including land, water, that live in the same area. air and atmosphere. - Ex: Pride of Lions ➔ What is the order of the Biological Organization? Our Planet is home to an incredible diversity ➔ What is our difference with the animal of organisms. kingdom? ➔ What are the different levels of Biological What makes the human Organizations? population special? DISCOVERY OF CELLS TOPIC 1.5: BIOLOGY (Grade 8) ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━ Robert Hooke (1635-1703) Matthias Schleiden English scientist, examined a thin slice of (1804-1881) German botanist who with Schwann, cork under the microscope cofounded the cell theory observed many tiny compartments that stated that all plants are composed of resembled little rooms with surrounds walls cells first to use the term “cell” for living things and published a book titled “micrographia” Anton Van Leeuwenhoek Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902) (1632-1723) a German scientist, physician, anthropologist, Dutch inventor, who observed rbc, sperm social scientist, and politician stated that just as animals are unable to arise cells, and a multitude of single-celled without previously existing animals. organisms in pond water cells are unable to arise without previously discovered bacteria, parasitic protists, and existing cells many other microscopic organism Camillo Golgi Robert Brown (1843-1926) (1773 - 1858) Italian physician and cytologist who Scottish botanist that discovered the discovered Golgi apparatus. nucleus, a constant component of the cell. discovered brownian motion CELL THEORY basic principle of biology. Albert Von Kolliker 1. All organisms are made up of one or more cells. (1817-1905) paramecium, human, plant Swiss anatomist, physiologist and histologist. 2. All cells come from pre-existing cells, except for the very first one First discovered mitochondria cell division 3. The cell is the basic unit of structure and Theodore Schwann organization that performs life functions. (1810-1882) German zoologist famous for his development Photosynthesis, Cellular Respiration of the cell theory stated that all animals are composed of cells ❖ SDG 15: LIFE ON LAND the discoveries? ❖ SDG 17: PARTNERSHIP FOR THE GOALS 2. What is Cell Theory? 3. How can we apply this in our daily life? 1. Who are the different people/scientists behind CELL PARTS AND STRUCTURES TOPIC 1.6: BIOLOGY (Grade 8) ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━ Cytology - Cyto - cells; logus - to study - study of cells, their structures, role, biochemistry, communication, and behavior  Cell - basic building blocks of all living things. ALL ABOUT CELLS Two Main Types: first life forms to Prokaryotic Eukaryotic inhabit the earth small ribosomes, large ribosomes, complex cell wall simple cell wall lack nucleus unicellular organism (ex: plants and no membrane fungi) bound organelles unicellular organism some unicellular, mostly multicellular smaller and less complex faster growth rate slower growth rate or generation time or generation time evolve later in earth’s examples: bacteria and archaebacteria History examples: prosti, fungi, plants, animals has nucleus Two Types of Eukaryotic Cells: has membrane bound Plant Cell Animal cell organelles usually large smaller large and more complex rectangular shape round shape cell wall and no cell wall and chloroplast are chloroplast present centrioles - only centrioles are present in lower present in all plant forms animal cells larger vacuole small vacuole Ex: Amoeba Proteus, Plant Stem, Red Blood Cell, Nerve Cell CELL ORGANELLES “Little organs” - compartments that carry out 8. RIBOSOMES specialized functions. - site of protein synthesis 1. CELL MEMBRANE - a.k.a plasma membrane - 9. GOLGI BODY resembles a fluid mosaic model - a.k.a golgi complex or golgi apparatus - semi permeable or selectively - packaging counters of the cell permeable - modify, store, process and package - regulates materials that are macromolecules such as proteins. entering and exiting the cell 10. LYSOSOMES 2. CELL WALL - rigid structure - outside the cell membrane - suicide bags of the cell - provides support for the cell and plant - rich in strong hydrolytic enzymes 3. CYTOPLASM - remainder of the cell - between - packets of enzymes that break down materials the nucleus and cell membrane - includes the cytosol - artery mixture of 11. MITOCHONDRIA ions, enzymes, RNA, and other dissolved - produces energy for the cell substances. - center of cellular respiration 4. NUCLEUS - control center - powerhouse of the cell - contains the genetic material: DNA - regulates 12. CHLOROPLASTS - green chlorophyll - site of DNA and RNA actions photosynthesis 5. NUCLEOLUS - structure involved in the 13. VACUOLES production of Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) to produce - storage tanks of the cell protein. - stores waste, nutrients and water - site of production of ribosomes 14. CENTRIOLES - aids in cell division 6. CHROMATIN - stores the genetic information - paired 7. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM -barrel shaped organelles - organize the microtubules to form spindle fibers. - network of sacs and tubules composed of 15. CYTOSKELETON - helps the cell to maintain its membrane shape. - originates at the nuclear evelope and winds - provides mechanical support throughout the cell. - RER - studded with ribosomes on its outer ➔ IN ADDITION… surface; ribosomes make proteins. Flagella - whip-like structure (like a tail). Propeller - SER - synthesizes lipids like. Cillia - cillium singular: hair -like growth Eukaryotic cells? ❖ SDG 3: GOOD HEALTH AND WELL- BEING 1. What is the difference between Prokaryotic and 2. What is an Animal and Plant Cell? functions and characteristics? 3. What are the different organelles and their CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION TOPIC 1.7: BIOLOGY (Grade 8) ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━ INSIDE THE NUCLEUS IS THE GENETIC Types of Chromosomes: MATERIAL 1. Sex chromosomes - determine the sex of an individual. CHROMOSOMES 2. Autosomes - carry genetic coding for - packed and organized structure - made out everything except for sex determination. of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) - Humans have 46 Chromosomes. (23 Pairs) ➔ KARYOTYPE - reveals the number, size, and form of chromosomes. - protein structure - forms at the centromere of every chromosome OTHER TERMS RELATED TO CHROMOSOMES - main function is to bind microtubules of the spindle 1. SISTER CHROMATIDS 4. HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES - made up - two identical copies of the same of chromosome pairs of approximately the chromosome formed by DNA replication, same length, centromere position, and attached to each other by a structure called staining patterns for genes with the same the Centromere. corresponding loci. 2. CENTROMERES 5. CHROMATIN - found in the nucleus, - links a pair of sister chromatids primarily made up of a long strand of DNA during cell division wrapped around proteins. 3. KINETOCHORE 6. CHROMOSOMES - chromatin condenses to - ex: somatic cells (liver, skin) form chromosomes during cell division. 7. HAPLOID CELLS - symbol: n - one set of chromosomes (n=23) - ex: gametes (sperm, egg) 8. DIPLOID CELLS - two sets of chromosomes (n = 46) that produces new cells. CELL CYCLE INTERPHASE - Cell Cycle is the sequence of growth, replication, and division a) G1 phase - (Gap 1/Growth 1) b) S phase - (Synthesis) - final preparation for cell division c) G2 phase - (Gap 2/Growth 2) - protein synthesis (microtubules) M PHASE M PHASE a) Prophase - mitosis and meiosis b) Metaphase - cell division c) Anaphase CYTOKINESIS d) Telophase - division of cytoplasm - karyokinesis - nucleus GAP 1 (G1) - increases and attains normaal size - ➔ A particular human might undergo one preparation fo DNA Synthesis cell division in 24 hours: - organelles form M Phase - less than an hour - metabolism G1 Phase - 5 - 6 hours with most variable in SYNTHESIS (S) length in different types of cells - DNA Synthesis G2 phase - 4 - 6 hours S Phase - 10 - 12 hours GAP 2 (G2) G2 Phase (gap 2/ Growth 2) INTERPHASE - synthesizes proteins that are necessary for - preparing for cell division chromosome sorting and cell division - more cell growth will occur - more organelles are synthesized G1 phase (Gap 1/Growth 1) (duplicated) - cell synthesizes substances in preparation for FUNCTIONS OF CELL DIVISION subsequent steps leading to mitosis. - cell growth Asexual Reproduction - duplicated organelles Growth and Develop tissue Renewal S Phase (Synthesis) - - chromosomes are replicated CELL DIVISION - sister chromatids ➔ begins when a parent cell divides and form - at the end, cell has twice as many daughter cells that carry the exact copy of DNA chromatids as the number of through the packed chromosome of the parent chromosomes in G1 phase cell. - the parent cell and the resulting daughter cells are diploid (2n) MITOSIS - cells that are produced include cells in the human - nucleus of the cell divides into two body for the skin, blood, and muscles. identical daughter cell - cell needs to be replicated into the exact copies of itself - chromatin fibers become more tightly coiled, condensing into discrete chromosomes ❖ Spindle Fiber - nucleoli disappear - spindle fiber forms - chromosomes captured by spincle fibers - PROPHASE centrioles move to each pole of the cell METAPHASE ANAPHASE - Chromosomes have all arrived at the - chromosomes break at the centromere metaphase plate into sister chromatids - sister chromatids move toward opposite poles begin to decondense into chromatin - nuclear membranes begin to form around each daughter cells - cytokinesis occurs, enclosing each daughter TELOPHASE nucleus into a separate cell. - chromatids (now called daughter chromosomes) ❖ TWO KINDS OF CELLS IN AN ORGANISM CYTOKINESIS 1. Vegetative (somatic/body) cells - new walls begin to form for plant cells. - cleavage furrow form for - form the body of an organism animal cells. 2. Reproductive (sex) cells - involved in production of offspring - ex: gametes ❖ REMEMBER: Haploid (n) - 1 set of chromosomes Mitosis - vegetative Diploid (2n) - 2 sets of chromosomes Meiosis - reproductive cells Polyploid - many sets of chromosomes ❖ Chromosome number ❖ Homologous Chromosomes - each organism has definite number of - when an organism is diploid, the members of a chromosomes found in each of its cells the pair of chromosomes are called homologous number of chromosomes is established a the - homologous chromosomes have the same time of zygote formation - human - 46 size and DNA information chromosomes - onion - 16 chromosomes Ploidy - number of sets of chromosomes MEIOSIS - gametes undergo a double division - maintaining the DNA but reducing the - sperm + egg -> zygote chromosomal count to 23 Production of daughter cells containing half - Has two stages of division the number of chromosomes of the parent cell - It concentrates on reducing the diploid Haploid cell (n) chromosomal number to haploid. Cell division for reproductive cell (reduction) -It focuses on producing 4 daughter cells, (equational) each carrying a haploid chromosome. - homologous chromosomes are held MEIOSIS I together at points called chiasmata - similar to mitosis with chromosomal differences - crossing over of genetic material between non- sister chromatids occur PROPHASE I - new gene combinations are formed on - chromosomes condenses chromatids (recombination) progressively throughout Prophase 1 - crossing over occurs MEIOSIS I - pairs of homologous ANAPHASE I chromosomes are now arranged at the - homologous chromosomes move towards metaphase opposite pole, guided by the spindle plate; with one chromosome of each pair apparatus facing each pole - sister chromatid cohesion persists at the centromere, causing chromatids to move as a unit toward the same pole TELOPHASE I - each half of the cell has a complete haploid set of duplicated chromosomes - each chromosome is composed of two sister MEIOSIS II chromatids - separates the sister chromatids produces two haploid (N) daughter cells that - after Meiosis II have only one copy of each chromosome - no DNA Replication for Meiosis I and II each chromosome is made out of 2 sister chromatids PROPHASE II chromatids associated at the centromere - a spindle apparatus forms METAPHASE II - nucleoli disappear - chromosomes are positioned at the - chromosomes still composed of two metaphase plate - the two sister chromatids of each chromosomes are not genetically identically Anaphase II TELOPHASE II - sister chromatids separate and move - nuclear membranes form around towards opposite ends of the cell chromosomes, the chromosomes begin decondensing, and cytokinesis occurs ❖ Meiosis produces 4 haploid (N) daughter cells Difference of Mitosis and Meiosis MITOSIS MEIOSIS Somatic cells Germ cells Nucleus divides only once Nucleus divides twice Two daughter cells Four daughter cells are are formed formed Frequently occurs Less frequently There is only 1 PMAT There are two of each phase. Number of Number of ➔ What is Mitosis and Meiosis? chromosome are chromosomes are ➔ What is their difference? not changed in reduced to half. ➔ What type of cell does Mitosis and Meiosis occur? daughter cells Chromosome Chromosome number number doubles at is not doubled. It the doubles after the beginning of each end of first meiotic cell division. division No crossing over Crossing over in chromosomes. occurs chromosome.  Equation division. Reduction division Daughter cells Daughter cells form somatic form gametes organs CELLULAR RESPIRATION TOPIC 1.8: BIOLOGY (Grade 8) ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━ CELLULAR RESPIRATION A process which cells take the energy from glucose to function. A complex process by which energy in the form of ATP is released from food molecules. WHAT DOES ATP DO FOR YOU? splitting of sugar occurs in cytoplasm It supplies you with ENERGY 2 net ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 pyruvic acids are ENERGY CARRIERS FOUND IN produced CELLULAR RESPIRATION occurs whether or not oxygen is present 1. Adenosine triphosphate 2. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide 2. Krebs Cycle 3. Flavin adenine dinucleotide also known as citric acid occurs in matrix of mitochondria 2 net ATP, 6 CO2, 8 NADH, and 2 FADH2 are produced requires oxygen WHERE DOES CELLULAR RESPIRATION OCCUR: 3. Electron Transport Chain (ETC) main source of ATP production occurs in inner membrane of mitochondria STEPS OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION 34 ATP are produced occurs when oxygen present 1. Glycolysis requires oxygen TYPES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION efficient (38 ATP) reactants: glucose and oxygen 1. Aerobic Respiration product: CO2 and H2O performed by eukaryotic cells goes from cytoplasm to mitochondria 2. Anaerobic Respiration inefficient (2 ATP) performed by prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells reactants: glucose only in cytoplasm product: lactic acid (animals), ethanol and CO2 does not require oxygen (yeast) PHOTOSYNTHESIS TOPIC 1.9 : BIOLOGY (Grade 8) ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━ PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS PHOTOSYNTHESIS The plant draws up water through its the process that converts solar energy roots. into chemical energy that is used by The leaves take in carbon dioxide from biological systems the air occurs in plants and some algae The leaves trap energy from sunlight 3 major events: The plant uses energy of sunlight to turn 1. Sunlight is converted into chemical water and carbon dioxide into sugars and energy 2. Water (H2O) is split into oxygen oxygen. (O2) 3. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is fixed into The plant releases oxygen into the air sugars (C6H12O6) The plant uses the sugars for growth. LEAF STRUCTURE Photosynthesis happens in the IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS: chloroplasts. Food source Provides energy Chloroplasts - full of round flattened CO2 is maintained at constant level and discs called thylakoids provides O2 Granum - A stack of thylakoids Chlorophyll - green pigment that harvests light for photosynthesis Stroma - space inside chloroplasts PROTEIN SYNTHESIS TOPIC 1.10 : BIOLOGY (Grade 8) ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━ of amino acids and proteins. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS Often known as the ‘central dogma’ since all living organisms undergo the process of protein process where DNA encodes for the production synthesis. CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY: DNA AND RNA ARE NUCLEIC ACIDS It illustrates the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to proteins Nucleic Acids: It is made up of chains of nucleotides. (e.g., DNA MAIN PLAYERS IN CENTRAL DOGMA: and RNA) Proteins help make up all structures in living Nucleotides: things. It is the basic building block of acid DNA VS RNA Proteins composed of amino acids – there are 20 different amino acids. Different proteins are made by combining TYPES OF RNA: these 20 amino acids in different combinations 1. messenger RNA (mRNA) Brings message from DNA to ribosomes to make PROTEIN STRUCTURE: protein Functions of Proteins: 2. transfer RNA (tRNA) Help fight disease Transfers amino acids to ribosomes Build new body tissue 3. ribosomal RNA (rRNA) Enzymes used for digestion and other chemical Makes up ribosomes along with proteins reactions are proteins Component of all cell membranes MAKING PROTEINS DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid STEP 1: TRANSCRIPTION: It is the hereditary material in humans and the copying of genetic information from DNA to almost all other organism. RNA. The instructions from a gene are copied from DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA) in the nucleus. RNA Then, mRNA then goes through the pores of the Ribonucleic acid nucleus with the DNA code and pores and into the It is a nucleic acid present in all living cells that cytoplasm attaches to the ribosome where the has structural similarities to DNA proteins are made STEP 2: TRANSLATION: codes for a specific amino acid. Ex. It refers to decoding of mRNA into a protein. The mRNA carrying the DNA instructions and tRNA The mRNA code is made up of groups of three carrying amino acids meet in the ribosomes. nucleotide bases known as codons. Each codon Amino acids are joined together to make a protein. CODON CHART  REFERENCES: GRADE 8 Science Book - General Biology (Book I and II) Supplementary Materials (i.e., teachers’ presentations) shared/uploaded from UST Cloud Campus. DISCLAIMER: All content and information in these review materials have been organized and/or compiled by the students and are intended as aid for informational and educational purposes only, with no guarantee of completeness or accuracy. Teachers assume no responsibility or liability for any error or omission that may be present in the contents hereof.